FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS RETENTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ARMED CONFLICT AREAS: A CASE OF MOUNT ELGON DISTRICT

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO MOI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any other University for a degree or a diploma. No part of it may be copied or reproduced in any way without prior permission from the author/or Moi University except for scholarly quotation in which case the author must be credited.

This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as the University Supervisors.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my entire family members; father Alfred Naibei, mother Zipporah Kapkarich, brothers Dr. Moses Sichei, Major Anthony Naibei, Jephaniah Chemosit, my wife Emily Bukelembe, my children Chebeni, Cherop, Chemutai, Temko, Castro E. Naibei and Teng’an Nang’uni for their moral support during the development of this thesis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Prof. N. Kindiki and Dr. Kosgei who tirelessly guided me in this task and by being available for consultation. I wish to acknowledge the immense support I received from Moi University library staff which enabled me to successfully finish this thesis. I will never forget how resourceful my friends and colleagues who supported me throughout the thesis writing for ensuring that my plans went on as scheduled. I also wish to thank Moi University for giving me the chance to pursue this course.

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to investigate factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District because of the armed conflict that occurred in the area in the period 2006 to 2008. The objectives of the study were to establish effects of armed conflict on parental socio-economic factors that influence retention of students; find out the influence of armed conflict on school related factors that determine retention; determine effects of armed conflicts on school policies that influence retention. The theoretical framework of the study was based on the systems theory which assumes the concept that organizations are strongly influenced by their environment which exerts various forces of an economic, social or political nature. The research was a descriptive survey design. Multistage sampling was employed to cater for difference in geographical and school characteristics. Stratified sampling was used to select 16 secondary schools from a population of 25 schools in the district. Form three students in the selected schools were used because they had adequate experience about the variables under consideration. 27 class teachers that were teaching form three were purposively selected because they had privileged information about the students. Principals from the selected schools were also purposively selected because of their role as custodians of school records in total the study used 459 respondents. Data collection instruments namely; questionnaire, interview schedule was used. Descriptive and statistics were used to analyze the data collected. Findings indicate that the main parental socio-economic factors that influence retention was lack of food and poverty after destruction of property during the armed conflict. Inadequate number of teachers, lack of enough text books and lack of physical facilities are the school related factors that determine retention and were affected during the armed conflict. Guidance and counseling was the only school policy that was used to retain students in school during the conflict period. Recommendations were; provision of bursaries and financial support to the needy students, peace education in schools and provision of security in schools in the affected areas.

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

The chapter is designed to capture the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives, research questions, significance of the study, assumptions of the study, theoretical/conceptual framework and definition of key operation terms

1.1 Background to the problem.

As the wave of change sweep across the world today, each country is striving to put in place mechanisms for coping with transformations that affect the development. Kenya like any other developing country in the world expects education particularly higher education to be the instrument which plays a pivotal role in catalyzing development in all spheres of life. Education is indeed an integral part of development and at the same times a strategy for the wider development agenda. It plays a strategic role in development since it opens doors to broadened thinking and empowers people to make informed decisions, nurtures self –confidence and uplifts ones’ socio-economic status (Digolo -2003).

Education is a corner stone of economic growth, socio-development and a principle means of improving the welfare of individuals. It increases the productive capacity of societies and their political, economic and scientific institutions (Harbinson 1985). Investment in education, like all investments, is largely evaluated in terms of their rates of return. Human capital theory provides a general methodology for estimating the rates of return to investment in education. According to the theory, people spend on themselves in diverse ways for the sake of future pecuniary returns (Becker 1975; Mincer, 1974). Education provides the means of developing knowledge, skills and productive capabilities of the labor force which is ultimately the backbone of the successful operations of both the formal and the informal sector of the economy

(Psacharopoulos, 1985). Application of this methodology in developing countries has produced apparent high rate of return which have been put forth as evidence by the need for giving priority to investment in education (World Bank, 1989). The role of education in socio-economic development is to act as a means to improve the welfare of individuals and the large society (Ayot and Briggs, 1988). The link between education and development has fairly been well established. Schultz (1963) methods of measuring the contribution of education into economic growth led to the suggestion that substantial proportion of the rate of growth of output in the United States was due to investment in education. In Kenya, it was found out that education contributes to 12.4% to the economic growth (Psacharopoulos, 1985). Therefore education is regarded as a critical factor in any economic development initiative (Simmons, 1988).

Because of the increasing financial constraints in educational investments , developing countries are not only searching for alternative ways of financing education but they are also paying closer attention to reduce costs and wastage by improving on efficiency (Boit,1998).Commenting on the need for efficiency (Nafukho,2000:13 ) further notes that;

Given the scarce resources allocated to the education sector, there is a great need for education institutions to be both internally and externally efficient. Education managers in Kenya should be concerned with producing qualified graduates at a minimum cost. Thus, an increase in economic efficiency can be maintained by producing the same output at the lowest cost.

Even though emphasis is placed on efficient utilization of school input, the link between input and output of an education system makes the efficiency equation complete. The need to produce quality output at the least cost still remains a priority of many developing countries (Blaug, 1970; Boit, 1998).

Since independence, the education sector in Kenya has expanded rapidly leading to a substantial increase in the number of institutions. Student enrollment rose from 30,000 in (1963) to 1, 180,267 in 2007, (Ministry of Education). Whereas these figures reflects that much has been achieved, the Gross Enrollment Rate (GER) has, however, been declining. There are many youths out of the secondary schools. From the 1999 census data, there were a total of 1,433,000 boys and girls aged between 14-17 years who should have been in secondary schools in (2000). However, only 348,100 boys which is 24.2% and 313,700 girls which is 21.9% were enrolled (MOEST, 2003). This implies that Kenya needs to intensify efforts at this level to realize education for all (EFA) goals. Financing of education by the government of Kenya has raised a serious concern among policy makers as the recurrent budget allocation continues to increase.

This has raised issues which have implications on the ability of secondary schools to retain students. Dropping out of school is considered as a waste of human resource in terms of teachers and the students’ time. Therefore it can be seen as an outcome, which increases educational costs (World Bank, 1990). There is an urgent need therefore to reduce inefficiency in secondary schools as a strategy for reducing educational recurrent expenditure. For the strategy to succeed, it is important to determine the extent to which secondary schools are internally efficient in order to come up with sound solutions which will address student retention in secondary schools in Kenya.

Education plays a most important role in the creation and improvement of human capital, its relevance and importance to economic growth and development are now very well recognized in development planning. The MDGs adopted in 2000 call for Universal primary Education by 2015, yet there is still little consensus on how best to achieve this goal or how much it would cost.

Developing countries are not vulnerable to economic shocks but also to political shocks, ranging from violent protests and riots to coups, revolutions civil wars genocide and international wars. These affect millions of people every year across the word, resulting in lost opportunities in terms of economic growth and human development. The economic effect of conflicts induced shocks at the household level are however, under- researched as the impact of war, genocide or other types of violent conflict is typically analyzed in the macro- economic literature and in cross- country studies (collier and Hoeffler, 2004). Conflicts- related shocks are likely to have significant effect on the poverty status of households. Armed conflicts, violence and genocide, injured people, destroyed, infrastructure, displaced populations, break social cohesion and create fear and distrust. These effects are likely to push the worse- effected households into extreme forms of poverty and destination, even if some of these households were not poor initially. Death and injuries are some of the most visible effects of armed conflicts requiring adaptation within the household.

Many families can’t afford school costs and the children themselves are more urgently needed to help out at home. As a conflicts continues unties the hope of going to school fades. Without help these children may never go back to school.

Although Kenya is considered to be peaceful country unlike her neighbors a close scrutiny revealed unprecedented wave of internal and cross border conflicts. This conflicts over land and tribal classes are sending signals that all is not rosy as the outside world has been erroneously made to believe.

In more recent times, conflict has endangered the right to education in Kenya without intervention, children can be denied access to good safe schools or alternative forms of education during armed conflicts period. It is much less likely children will stay in school. Many families are forced to flee their homes and end up living in temporary accommodation where there is no access to schools. It is a historical fact and currently reality that most Kenyan districts are hunted by actual or potential ethic conflicts. This is partly because of the fact that different communities continued to consciously or unconsciously rely on ethnicity to perpetuate their dominance and hegemony in an atmosphere characterized by scarce resources, fear and prejudice. The proliferation of ethnic conflict in this country is so widespread that there is hardly any region where the problem has not reared its ugly head (Nyukuri, 1995).

Mt Elgon district, western province Kenya was severely affected by armed conflict, unfortunately, not even school was safe from attacks during this time of armed conflict. In rural areas the school buildings were the only substantial permanent structures, making it highly susceptible to attacks, closure or looting often local teachers were prime targets because they are important community members or because they may hold strong political views. During armed conflict, fear and disruption make it difficult to create an atmosphere conducive to learning, and the morale of both teachers and pupils was likely to be low as armed conflict drag on for months or even years, economic and social conditions suffer and educational opportunities become more limited even cease to exist altogether. Sometimes even when educational opportunities existence parents are reluctant to send their children to school.

Mt Elgon is ideal for conducting this study as it was rocked by internal conflict in recent years. This conflict created novel challenges on student retention in secondary schools in the district as some students became combatants while others became victims. Although several studies have investigated school retention in recent years (Miguel and Kremer 2004; White, 2004; Hanushek, 2009; Duflo, et al, 2009), there is a far less focus on the role of conflict.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Several studies have been undertaken on students’ retention in different places. Bommier and Lambert (2000) found that distance to school had a significance effect on years of schooling. Studies on school based health programme which includes deworming improved retention in primary schools in Kenya (Miguel and Kremer 2004). Other studies have been done on school feeding program which have shown positive impact in retention of students. (Vermeersch and Kremer 2004).

Dreze and Kingdon (2001) found that several school quality factors had statistically significant effects on years of primary school attained. White (2004) showed that a minimum quality of facilities was essential in the promotion of school retention. Other recent studies underscore the role of quality on school retention in developing countries (Hanushek, 2009). There is limited data on the role of conflicts on school retention. The study attempts to reduce this possible source of error by including conflict as one factor that may affect school retention in Kenya.

The data used in the study was drawn from Mt Elgon District area that was severely affected by conflict pitting communities in the area leading to an ill defined militia group the Sabaot land defense force that was forcing people to vacate the farms. Those perceived to have defined were either killed or had their ears chopped off between 2006 and 2008 teachers were targeted, school buildings were looted all the preventing children from attending classes. The study exploits the predominantly rural nature of Mount Elgon to asses the influence of armed conflict on retention of secondary school students

1.3 The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to investigate factors that influence the retention of secondary schools students affected by conflict in Mt. Elgon District. An area which was severely affected by armed conflicts from 2006-2008.

1.4 Objectives of the Study.

Establish effects of armed conflicts on parental socio-economic factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District.

Find out the influence of armed conflicts on school related factors that determine retention of students in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District.

Determine effects of armed conflicts on school policies that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District.

1.5 Research Questions

1.5.1 Major Research Question

What are the factors that influence the retention of student in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District?

1.5.2 Subsidiary Research Questions

What are the effects of armed conflicts on parental socio-economic factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District?

Which are the effects of armed conflicts on school related factors that determine retention of student in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District?

What are the influences of armed conflicts on school policies that influence retention of students in Mt. Elgon District?

1.6 Justification of the Study

The Kenya government recognizes, provide education as a critical aspect of development process. Secondary school education is seen as integral part of basic education that should be availed to all. Widened secondary school places is a central part of the current plan in the Ministry of Education (Kenya, Ministry of Education, 2005; Kenya, Ministry of Education, 2007). One of the greatest constraints to achieving this is dropout of students from the school system. Although several studies have examined the factors that account for this problem in Kenya, there is less focus on the role of armed conflict among communities (Olwenya, 1996; Ngware, 1998; Musera and Ndege, 2008). The role of armed conflict is growing increasing important because in recent years Kenya is increasingly experiencing armed conflicts. Mt. Elgon District provides an ideal environment in this respect because of the armed conflict that occurred in the district in the period 2006 to 2008 pitting two communities against each other.

Prevalence of conflicts has led to initiation of several programs that attempt to promote peace in poor countries. These programs are costly.

The need to justify such costs is critical especially in this period when the world is faced with a global financial crisis. Estimation of the value of peace is therefore an important input in the planning and financing of these programs. The study will attempt to estimate these values to education as a social investment and fill this gap using data from secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District, Kenya.

1.7 Significance of the Study

Policy makers will also benefit from this study as it provides valuable information on the role of conflict on retention of students.

Peace promoters may also gain from the study findings has it provides data on the possible value of peace to poor people in a developing country.

Researchers on education may also glean valuable data from this study on the role of conflict on school outcomes;

1.8. Scope and Limitations of the Study

1.8.1 Scope

The study was aimed at covering public secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District. The study sought information from pupils, teachers and school principal in Mount Elgon district. Mount Elgon district is considered appropriate because of the pervasive nature of the conflict that rocked the district in the period 2006 to 2008. Student retention rates, students’ socioeconomic background, school related factors and school policies on retention were variable of critical interest in the study.

1.8.2 Limitations

The restricted geographical spread, as the research was largely rural and would not lend “itself” well to national extrapolations. However, because of the existence of incomes that are generally comparable to the national income in Mount Elgon, lessons may be gleaned from information provided by this study that may assist economic planning;

Records about school attendance, repetition or dropout may be scanty. However, the study complemented this with pupil supplied information about their experiences. Daily registers were examined to enhance school record.

1.9 Assumptions of the Study

i) Students transfer from one school to another is symmetric and therefore cancels out. They are thus, unlikely to influence retention rates that are estimated by this study;

ii) Students’ abilities are normally distributed. They therefore cannot influence the estimates of the coefficients of various variables used in this study

Schools maintain good and up to date school attendance records that can be used to determine school retention over the period of the study;

School principals will provide information on the policies that they used to enhance retention during conflict.

1.10 Theoretical frame work

The theoretical framework of the study was based on the system theory by Laszlo and Banathy which refers to the concept that organizations are strongly influenced by their environment. The environment consists of other organizations that exert various forces of an economic, political, or social nature. The environment also provides key resources that sustain the organization and lead to change and survival.

An open system is any distinct entity… a cell, a person, a forest or a school… that takes in resources from its environment, processes them in some way, and produce output. To survive such a system depends on its environment, and on interactions between its component parts or subsystems. When taking an open-systems approach, we look both inward and outward. We are interested in relationship and patterns of interaction between subsystems and their environments within the organization. We also look for relationships and reciprocal influences between the organization and the environment outside its formal boundary.

In this study the focus was to establish effects of armed conflicts on parental socio-economic factors that influence retention; influence of armed conflicts on school related factors that determine retention; effects of armed conflict on school policies that influence retention and influence of armed conflicts as explanatory factors for variation in school retention in Mt. Elgon District. Following Mincer (1973) and Hanushek (2009) the study assumes that households seek to maximize a school production function represented by

Where R is a school output factor represented by levels of retention, B is a vector of effects of armed conflict on parental socio-economic factors, S are influence of armed conflict on school related factors; P is a vector of effects on armed conflict on school policies and I is an indicator of armed conflict.

As a production function, R is assumed to contain the characteristics of a production function such as being concave, continuous and twice differentiable.

These permit the estimation of the function under ordinary least square specification. Following Musera and Ndege (2009) this study specifies (1) as follows:

Where R is the level of retention, B is the vector of effects of armed conflict socio-economic factors, S is the vector of school related factors, P is an indicator of school policies and I is a measure of armed conflicts. The parameter a1 is a constant of regression. The coefficient a2, a3, a4 and a5 are coefficients regression. μ is the error of regression that is assumed to be normally distributed.

1.11 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study was extracted from the earning path analysis model described by Psacharopolous and Woodhall (1985). This presupposes a web of relationships that transcend family socioeconomic background, educational scores and earnings. In this study, students’ family background is assumed to influence school retention through its influence on the level of scholastic investments. School related factors also influence retention by the quantity and quality of teachers and learning facilities. School policies on student discipline are also considered critical in determining retention of students. Armed conflict indicators are also assessed.

1.12 Definition of Operational Terms

This is concern with number of students who remain in school in the subsequent year. This study uses student flows in the selected schools to estimate retention levels for different students.

This is a state of war that prevails that pits one section of the community against another section. In this study the focus is on Mount Elgon district which was embroiled in conflict in the period 2006 to 2008. The study compares student retention rates in schools in this district in this period with those of the previous three years.

This concern of how armed conflicts affected the general social and economic status of parents. The study uses this data to estimate its effects on the retention of students.

These are inputs in school situation used to enhance performance e.g teachers, text books and physical facilities

This is a concern of methods that were used to retain students in school during the conflict period.

1.13 Summary of the chapter

The aim of the study was to investigate factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District. The objectives were to identify effects of armed conflicts from parental; socio-economic factors, school related factors and school policies which determine retention. The theoretical framework was based on the systems theory by Laszlo and Banathy. The conceptual framework was extracted from the earning path analysis model described by Psacharopolous and Woodhall (1985)

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is designed to explore literature related to the study on factors influencing students’ retention in armed conflicts areas. It will cover the following areas:

Education and investment, financing of secondary education in Kenya, influence of physical facilities (hardware issues) on retention, influence on textbooks (software issues) on retention, influence of pupil/teacher ratio on retention, conflict, causation theories, conflict theory by Ralf Dahrendorf, peace-making, peace-building, post-conflict peace-building, structural dimension: addressing root causes, relational dimension, peace-education in conflict areas.

2.1. Education and Investment

Classical economic philosophers long contended that education was a means to economic development. But this view was not universally accepted .For example early Greek philosopher e.g. (Plato and Socrates) held the view that the sole purpose of education was to shape the youth to be good citizens. According to these early thinkers, education was enjoyable experience and therefore an end in itself rather than a form of investment (Ayodo, Gatimu and Gravenir, 1991). From the 18th century, however, education began to be seen as an important means of increasing workers’ productivity capacity. This shift in opinion was as a result from the work of Adam smith, Heinrich Von Thunen and Alfred marshal (Ayot and Briggs, 1992).

The work of E .F Denison and T.W Schultz in particular, gave a firm foundation to the concept of human capital (Cohn, 1975). In particular, (Denison, 1962), study associated the “residual factor” in economic growth of nations with education. Currently, literature show the relationship between the educational economic growth and other forms of individual and national development, (World Bank, 2002) (Mcmahon, 1999) (Carnoy 1995, Psacharopoulos and Woodhall, 1985). Other studies (World Bank, 1995 and 1999) specifically show that average years of secondary and higher schooling are significantly related to the subsequent rates of economic growth Government has a strong direct involvement in the financing provision of schooling of various levels. Hence public policies in these areas have major effects on a country’s accumulation of human capital. One aspect of human capital is the average years of attainment as constructed by (Barro and Lee, 2001). For a given level of initial per capital, GDP, a higher initial stock of human capital signifies a higher ratio of human to physical capital. This higher ratio tends to generate higher economic growth by two ways (1) more human capital facilitates the absorption of superior technologies from leading countries. Many researchers have argued that the quality of schooling is more important than the quantity measured for example, by years of attainment (Barro and Lee 1998). Others (Hanushek and Kimko, 2000) have argued that exactly the opposite is the case. The latter suggest that the link between standardized school scores and wages is stronger than that between wages and school attainment. (2) Education can be used as a tool for liberating man (Nyerere, 1967). Education needs finance as one of its major inputs. It is true that human physical organization and curricular inputs are the substance on which the whole education process as well as its efficiency is based, but without finance, it is impossible to recruit and use such inputs for achieving the targets of the education system.

Education is viewed as the prime mover of the development process in a nation and is neither an exclusive private nor public good, making its provision by both the government and the private players a necessity .However the cost of its provision has risen in developing countries as a result of rising enrolments due to increased social demand for education and high expenditure on teacher salary.(Lockhead et al,1991) consequently, developing countries have experienced a high increase in their expenditures on education than in the growth of their national economies.

Government spending on education as a percentage of total gross domestic products (GDP) is similar across different groups of countries (UNESCO, 2003). The percentages are larger in high income countries than in low income countries but not remarkable so. Neither is the difference dramatic across the regions. Yet since school aged children are a much larger percentage of the population in developing countries, education resources per child are typically lower in developing countries relative to GDP per capita. In low-income countries, spending per primary student is about 7% per capita GDP and this figure increases to about 13.3 % and 18.8 % for the middle and high income countries respectively (UNESCO 2003).

Teacher salaries are by far the largest components of governments’ expenditures on education in developing countries. According to a study of 55 countries (low-income) on average , teacher salaries and benefits account for 74% of government recurrent expenditure on education.(Bruns et al, 2003).

Countries respond to these high costs of teachers’ by maintaining large class sizes. As a country develops, teachers’ relative salary decreases (Lakdawalla, 2001)

Even with the country’s’ depressed economic performance and resource constraints, education remains one of the highest development priorities. Overall recurrent expenditure of the ministry of education increased by 60.8% from kshs. 30.1 billion in 1996/97 to kshs.48.4 billion in 2000/01. However, empirical evidence suggest that despite the enormous resource allocation to the sector, gains in key education indicators including access and quality have been on the decline at all levels.(Kenya, Ministry of Planning, 2003).

The combined effects of poverty at the household level on the one hand and high cost on the other, have resulted in inadequate provision of teaching/learning resources contributing to further to deterioration of performance in school in Kenya. In 1993-94 financial year, the government introduced bursaries for secondary schools students to be provided free to needy and the bright students to enable them to study. A total of Kshs. 536 million was disbursed under the bursary programme during the year 2000/01 financial year. It was targeted to benefit 28% of the poor students in the secondary schools. Only about 22% of the children belonging to the poorest quintile enjoyed the bursary relief as indicated by the WMS –II (Kenya, Ministry of Planning, 1993).

Musera (2009) has argued that government financing of education is desirable has ensures that economies of scale may be enjoyed. Other studies have contended that the marginal social benefit of education far exceed marginal private benefit (Crew and Young, 1977; Musgrave, 1987) Education has also been shown to have other benefits including crime reduction, social cohesion, technological innovation and intergenerational benefits, that is the benefits that parents pass on to their children as a result of their education (Havenman and Wolfe, 1984; Psacharopoulos and Woodhall 1985). The benefit of social cohesion on is particular important for the national unity of a country. This benefit forms part of the critical social objective of government provision of education in many developing countries with multi-ethnic diversities such as Kenya. Internal conflicts are thus often linked to low investment in education. The reverse relation is less studied in literature. In this study, focus is on the role of conflict on school retention in the Mount Elgon district, Kenya.

Generally banks do not allow students to borrow money to finance their education against their expected future income because it is not a tangible and secure investment (Barness and Barr 1988). For this reason capital markets are considered to be imperfect and cannot be relied upon to provide finance for education. During conflict this imperfections may be more intense.

2.2 Financing of Secondary Education in Kenya

Education reforms that are aimed at increasing access to and participation in any level of education carry significant financial demand. In 2003, Kenya introduced the Free Primary Education (FPE) policy with a view to meeting the goal of Universal Primary Education (UPE). Having successfully initiated the implementation of this policy, the country is now widening access to and improve the quality of secondary and tertiary education. However, the country faces constrains in mobilizing additional public and private resources to meet the high cost of expanding access to quality secondary education.

Resource constraints are compounded by inequalities in participation across regions, social class and gender. Any attempt, therefore, to expand access to secondary education must take into account the existing disparities within the society, failure to which such expansion will be a tool for propagating social – economic inequalities.

As the country moves towards achieving universal primary schooling, demand for education is shifting to secondary education. The global trends demand that more skills, values and attitudes are necessary to exploit any global opportunity. Therefore, as has been noted by the World Bank (2005) provision of good quality secondary education is a critical tool in generating the opportunities and benefits of social and economic development. Educating people means putting opportunities into their hands, and is recognized as one of the best anti-poverty strategies.

Secondary education provides a vital link between basic education and the world of work, on one hand, and further training on the other. It is therefore an important sub-sector of education in the preparation of human capital for development and provision of life opportunities. However, despite its importance in the process of development, the costs of provision and expansion of quality secondary education have been dwindling. The current status of education in Kenya suggests that the scenario is likely to remain the same, if not worsen, unless urgent interventions support this proposition. First, with the introduction of FPE, the number of pupils completing primary school is bound to increase into and access to secondary education may have adverse consequences for primary completion rates, as students lose hope of joining secondary school. Second, failure to expand secondary education will compromise human capital accumulation and therefore jeopardize economic recovery and development. Third, it should be realized that a more meaningful way of achieving gender equity in schools is to expand enrolments. Fourth, gender, social class and regional inequalities in education will worsen as secondary schooling replaces primary education as the main determinant of life opportunities and subsequent employment and income in the absence of reforms that allow vulnerable groups to participate. Fifth, in Kenya, economic recovery and growth will prove elusive with small proportions of the labour force completing secondary education, and this will undermine the financial sustainability of Education For All (EFA) as envisaged in the national development goals.

A considerable number of studies have been conducted on wastage in education. The concept of wastage in education is evident in the large numbers of children who, for one reason or another, do not succeed in acquiring the full range of skills offered in the educational system. It has at its most simple been used to describe the loss of students from schools. It has also variously been defined as attrition and grade repetition by the Scottish Council of Research in Education (SCRE, 2000) and the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 1994), as drop out (Bean, 1980); and as repetition and withdrawal (Malaysia Ministry of Education, 1991).

Corroborating these views MC Dougall (2001), Payne (2000) and Martinex, (1997) posited that wastage occurs when either drop out or repetition or both makes it impossible for the flow of students from one grade level to the next higher one to be normal. Akanbou (1981) and Nwankwo (1981) similarly maintained that wastage occurred if the number of students graduating from acohort was less than the number that started the cohort. Mare (1980) and Tinto (1987) operationally defined wastage in education as the inability of the school system to retain or motivate students to persist in attending school.

Educational wastage has been linked to a combination of factors including economic and social elements (Yaffa and Cherry 1991) distance from the students’ home (Bakari 2000, Kiddie, 1999 and Ofoegbu, 1997), potential students have been wasted as a result of poverty, Fitzcharies, 2001 and Davies, 2001). Lack of Instructional facilities and motivation (Martinez 1995).

Grade retention is the opposite of dropout rate. It is the ability of an education system to retain students in a given grade in the subsequent grade in a subsequent year. A large portion of those who enter class one in developing countries do not complete the primary. As a result of the high repetition and dropout at the primary level school retention are low, the trend indicates internal inefficiency in the education system.

Hanushek was one of the first economists to emphasize the issue of inefficiency and declining productivity of education in the US context (Hanushek, 1986).This is based on the empirical results in commensurate gains in achievements gains appear to be non-existent, and may be even declining while spending per student keeps rising. Good data from the poorest developing countries on both achievements and per student cost over time are rare, but there are some studies that indicate widespread educational inefficiencies in developing countries (Hanushek 1995).

The term “efficiency” as applied to education refers to the extend to which education yields desirable results to the society and its constituents individuals(Ayodo, Gatimu and Gravenir, 1991).It is used to describe the relationship between inputs and outputs. Efficiency is a function of two major factors, namely the level of investment in the system and the rate of student flow between the entry and exit cut-off points. The amount of resources spent on education influences its quality and the amount of learning achieved. If the quality of education is higher, the level of educational attainment and hence learners contribution to the society when they complete school would be high and vice versa. This is what is referred to as the external efficiency of an education system. A system is therefore said to be externally efficient if its graduates are useful to the society and vice versa.

The rate of student flow in an educations system determines whether those entering the school system are able to graduate within a stipulated period. If the rate of progression from the entry point to the point of departure is low (this is mainly due to repetition) the system is said to be internally inefficient since the affected students are disproportionately using the resources allocated to the sector. Educational system in developing countries exhibit high levels of inefficiency(particularly at the lower levels) .This is evidenced by the poor performance in national examinations and lack of employable skills by learners which lead to educated unemployment and high wastage rates (Bishop,1989; Brown,1999;Sifuna and Karugu,1988) .

One way to access efficiency is to analyze the gross enrollment rate (GER) at the primary, secondary and tertiary. According to the UNDP ( United Nations Development Programme) human development report of 2001, public spending on education for Kenya stood at 6.5 % of GDP for the period 1995-97 compared to other countries whose public spending is over 5% over the same period, Kenya recorded the least gross enrollment rate of 51% in 1999 (MOEST,2003) . Analysis reveals that Kenya does not enjoy enrollment rate consistent with its high level of public spending on education and this is the reason why the current study is being under taken.

Wastage is the worst form of inefficiency because when learners drop out of an educational system, the resources already invested in them go to waste. Furthermore, grade repetition has adverse effects as it lowers a schools capacity to admit new students. Besides, it also creates overcrowded classrooms environments and increases opportunity costs (to the individual and his/her family) for it implies many years of foregone income since the affected learner will enter the labor market belatedly (Lockhead et al, 1991).

From the extensive research on wastage and repetition that has been carried out by UNESCO, (1977) and the international bureau of education (1971) and that is summarized in Haddad, (1979) it is evident that the problem of dropout and repetition of grades is seriously through out the developing world. Estimates of the repetition rate in selected countries in the early 1970 indicates that a third of even a half of all pupils in many developing countries repeaters constitute about 15% in Africa and 18% in south Asia. In other words if there had been no repetition the number of children of primary school ages admitted to school would have been increased by some 15-20% without extra expenditure. Furthermore, it has been estimated that the total amount of money devoted to repeaters in the first grade in Latin America is more than in United States (Schiefelbein, 1975).

Drop out and repetition appear to be the most common among students from a low social economic background and are more prevalent in rural then in urban areas and among females than among males causes include; poverty which may give rise to illness, malnutrition and absenteeism, the high opportunity cost of schooling for poor families, cultural factors which affect girls in particular, in appropriate curriculum. Dropout and repetition has been identified as a principle cause of internal inefficiency in Morocco where only 24% of pupils complete the five year primary school cycle. (Psacharopoulos, 1985).

In Mauritius where more than 25% of all primary school pupils repeat a grade and in the Dominican Republic where as many as 60% of primary school pupils in 1970 had to repeat a grade.

In Kenya, the over loaded 8.4.4 curriculum is one of the factors which has been cited to affect pupils participation in school negatively (Brock and Commish, 1991; Kinyanjui, 1987; World Bank, 1992).

The pressure under which, students work is a lot. These burdens have reduced students playing time and affect their motivation for learning (Abagi, 1997; Sifuna, 1997) the consequences are that their performance deteriorates. In the process some children give up in education and in the long run drop out of school. This education system in developing countries are said to be inherently inefficient (Lockheed et al, 1991 Republic of Kenya, 1976; Republic of Kenya, 1999).

The relationship between input and output of education which as noted earlier is sometimes called education production function is highly complex since many factors such as ability , home background and socio economic factor besides school variables affect educational outcomes. The term production function refers to the process in which inputs are converted to outputs. An early study (Alexander and Simmons, 1975) of the education production function in developing countries examined the relationships interactions between pre-school factors, schooling, educational output and final outcomes.

One useful way of categorizing inputs is that used by Harbinson and Hanushek (1992) similar approaches by other authors: “Hardware” such as school buildings, classrooms and furniture, sanitation etc. “Softwares” such as curriculum, pedagogy, textbooks, writing material e.t.c. and teachers .

2.3 Influence of Physical Facilities (“Hardware” issues) on retention

School buildings and classrooms quality have positive or significant in school outcomes. The comprehensive case studies of Brazil by Harbison and Hanushek 1992 and of Ghana by white (2004) offer specific evidence that a minimum basic quality of school facilities matter significantly for achievement outcomes. For example, in Ghana schools would often lose days of instruction due to leaking roofs. Attention to maintenance and repairs dramatically improved the situation to the extent that it shows up as statistically significant in the multiple regression for test scores.

The more qualitative literature review by Haneveld and Craig on school quality in Africa also found that a basic level of school facilities contributes to school quality in terms of student learning. A basic standard of school facilities would include enough classrooms, sufficient desks, chalkboards and may be a storage cupboard for books and materials.

In addition to classroom, adequate sanitation in terms of water and latrines is an important aspect of school facilities for increasing the willingness of parents to enroll their girls. In most cases parents prefer separate toilets for boys and girls.

2.4 The influence of textbooks (Software issues) on retention

The importance of providing sufficient text books, especially when they have been scarce is documented in Ghana study by White (2004). This study has available test scores in 1998 and again in 2003 in order to access learning improvements over the intervening 15 years. A rigorous multiple regression analysis showed large gains. Improved text book provision was a significant factor in this. Before the improved provision of text books, primary schools in Ghana, which had been the best in Africa, deteriorated to the point where primary graduates scored no better on simple reading tests than those who had not been at school. Heneveld and Craig, (1995) developed a composite picture of deterioration of primary schooling in Africa in the study "school count". They pointed out that text books are often not available and even when they are; they are not used because they do not get to the classrooms for a variety of reasons or teachers are not trained on how to use the text books.

The result is evident in the poor academic performance of students, thus the availability of this material has implication for immediate quality improvements in the educational system. (Psacharopoulos, and Woodhall, 1985).

2.5 Influence of Pupil /Teacher ratio on retention

The issue of class size or pupil - teacher ratio (PTRS) is related to the quantitative aspect of how many teacher hire. For a given student population size, smaller classes means more teachers need to be hired. However, it should be noted that class size and pupil-teacher ratios are not necessarily the same measure except perhaps in special circumstances. Reducing the class size is the most frequent suggestions made for improving the quality of education but it is a costly strategy.

Kenya has one of the lowest pupil-teacher ratios in Africa according to the economic survey (2004) .It is particularly low considering its per capita GDP. Teachers are an important resource in the teaching and learning process. The level of expenditure on teachers' salary signifies the magnitude of resource allocated to the education. Therefore, teachers need to be more evenly distributed across schools based on enrollment. However, although the average pupil to teacher ratio (PTR) nation wide appears to be adequate, (MOEST, 2003), teachers are often distributed unevenly resulting to teacher shortage in many schools. As the teacher is the most important resource in the learning process, the level of pupil/teacher ratio indicates the utilization and distribution of the resources needed for institutions to have optimal size.

2.6 Conflict causation theories

Sociological theory is basically about the relationship between social life and society. It include various issues presented in any society for instance those related to social class like class of ideologies, social control, power relationships, as well as gender and social-economic issues. Sociological theory is related to the social issues of any society. As an example, communism and capitalism are two different ideologies related to the different social classes that raised social conflict in many societies the world over during the cold war era.

Conflict theory is an extension of sociological theory that discusses the various social issues leading to conflict in any society. Various theorists have contributed to the formulation of the theory, which is directly or indirectly related to society. For instance, Karl Max is a popular sociological theorist who provided extensive work on conflict theory relating to the economic basis of society in relation to social class.

Competition is the key element that instigates conflict. For instance, the structural inequalities in power and cultural relationships in any society, or the competition within human relationships regarding money, sexual power and leisure, are borne out of competition and leads to major conflicts that in future become a subject of sociological theorists.

2.7 Conflict theory as presented by Ralf Dahrendorf

Contemporary and traditional theorists of sociology have presented three assumptions related to the conflict theory, which are the basic elements of conflict within a class society. These include interests, which define the various groups of society and power, which often creates inequalities and leads to coercion among various groups. Coercion is basically related to the unequal distribution of resources within the various classes of society that develop with different power groups. The third aspect of conflict theory is related to the clash of ideologies and conflicting values among the various classes. Ralf Gustav Dahrendorf is a theorist of considerable standing among the other theorists of contemporary sociology. Though he has presented various theories related to sociology (Dahrendorf, 1959).

While discussing conflict theory, Ralf assumed that the various elements of society participate directly or indirectly in conflicts. Thus conflicts exist between these elements of the society. Further, social change is ubiquitous, which instigates conflict between different groups and among the various elements of society. (RItzer, Part 1, 2002). Ralf’s theory states that conflict occurs in every society and class but its roots lie in integration. When two groups or classes are living in a society they may clash over interests, ideologies or any other reason. However, the difference between power and authority leads to coherence and conflict within society.

Ralf assumes that power and authority are the roots cause of coherence that results in conflict among various groups within the society (Ritzer, Part 1, 2002).

Further, he argues that there are two key elements that lead to conflict in society. Integration is the basic one and it initiates the cycle of coherence that results in conflict. On the other hand, when two groups or classes integrate, one becomes dominant over the other due to the unequal division or resources. This results in difference in terms of power and authority. The powerful and the weak become the principle conflicting groups.

Conflict may mean different things to different people. It often occurs when two or more parties believe that their interests are incompatible. When this incompatibility is not reconciled positively, it most often lead to violence. Conflict is a dynamic process that may take different forms and continue through various stages of escalation and de-escalation. First there is the latent stage, when the conflict is below the surface and only manifest through confrontation. When open conflict is not resolved early it may lead to a crisis and consequently to loss of life, displacement and destruction. This heralds a post- conflict crisis that is usually expensive.

Episodic conflicts are usually pleasurable by both participants and spectators, who derive a variety of satisfaction from them. In most countries, general election period is a very exciting time. In others like Kenya, general elections are sources of conflict due to a variety of reasons – including enthnicization of politics; if not properly managed these may lead to open conflicts of a serious nature. The violence that followed the 2007 general election in Kenya attests to the likely consequences of this type of conflict. (Africa Action, 2008)

In a terminal conflict the object of at least one side is to destroy the other. Each side appears intensely threatening to the other but believes itself to occupy a defensive position, protecting its vital interests against the enemy. For this reason terminal conflicts have an inherent tendency of getting out of hand. Examples of these type of conflicts are the hundred days of ethnic violence that were experienced in Rwanda in 1994 and led to more than a million deaths. The ethnic conflicts that have been experienced in Kenya every five years during general elections may also fall in this category. The conflict in the Congo, Northern Uganda and Somali are further examples. (Osamba 2001).

The militia wars, recently experienced in Kenya seem aimed at the extermination of perceived enemies. These include groups such as the Mungiki, a group of controversial Kikuyu youths that, according to the government, has been causing terror in central Kenya by targeting people for purposes of extortion. Those who disobey their demands are allegedly crudely executed.

This was also the case with the Sabaot Land Defense Force in the Mt Elgon region of Kenya, an ill-defined militia group that was forcing people to vacate their farms. Those perceived to have defied were either killed or had their ears chopped off between 2006 and 2008.

Currently Kenya is experiencing many conflicts across and it calls for concerted efforts to find ways of student retention in conflict areas in Kenya.

During the last two decades, almost half of Africa has been devastated by armed conflicts. Along with poverty and political deficit, these conflicts are major obstacle to the development of education in Africa. Conflicts go well beyond a braking effect and stagnation. They also cause regression, as the example of some African countries clearly demonstrates. Whereas a practically universal access to primary education had been recorded, armed conflicts have caused enrolment rates to fall by about 30 to 40 points (ADEA 2004). It is likely that other aspects of the education systems are seriously affected. Such indicators of observable are all the more worrying because they are likely to conceal other more or less visible-yet-extensive-damage to both equity and quality throughout the sector.

From the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to Coted’Ivoire, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan to some of our neighboring countries, families and children have been torn apart. Children have lost their parents, homes have been destroyed. Although Kenya is considered to be peaceful unlike her neighbours a close scrutiny reveals an unprecedented wave of internal and cross border conflicts. This conflicts over land and tribal clashes are sending signals that all is not rosy as the outside world has been erroneously made to believe. Since the Millennium Goals have placed educational equity and access at the center of poverty reduction for the majority of the World’s people which include children. We must therefore in every possible manner prioritize the educational needs of children in post-conflict and crisis situation.

No place in Kenya can consider itself immune, due to internal factors currently fueling conflicts. It is no coincidence that social disparities are increasing in the country that is subjected to internal strife. This is a vicious circle in which conflicts results in extreme poverty, and growing poverty is often associated with violence.

In Mount Elgon District, families and children have been destroyed. In these circumstances children have been denied the chance to lead normal lives and to develop their potential like other children in the other World. The conflict-education equation is an issue of deep concern because it causes the worst educational wastage through dropouts and repetition leading to low rate of retention. The government, stakeholders and development partners should establish ways of retaining student in post conflict or crisis situations for it to achieve internal efficiency in educational system.

2.8 Peace – making

“Peace” is a term that most commonly refers to an absence of aggression, violence or hostility, but which also represents a larger concept wherein there are healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, safety in matters of social or economic welfare, the acknowledgement of equality and fairness in political relationships and, in world matters, peacetime; a state of absence or lose. Among these potential causes are insecurity, social injustice, economic inequality, political and religious radicalism and acute nationalism.

Peace is a state of balance and understanding within oneself and with others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differenced, and tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialogue, people’s rights are respected ad their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension.

The personalized meaning of “peace” is reflected in a non-violent lifestyle, which also describes a relationship between any people characterized by respect, justice and goodwill. This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individual’s sense of himself or herself, as to be “at peace” with one’s own mind. The early English term is also used in the sense of “Quiet” reflecting a calm, serene and meditative approach to the family or group relationship that avoids quarreling and seeks tranquility – an absence of disturbance or agitation.

Many different theories of “peace” exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation, disarmament and cessation of violence. The definition of peace can vary with religion, culture or subject of study.

2.9 Peace – building

Peace – building is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing the root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building and political as well as economic transformation. This consists of a set of physical, social and structural initiatives that are often an integral part of post conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation.

The central task of peace building is to create positive peace, a “stable social equilibrium in which the surfacing of new disputes does not escalate into violence and war.” Sustainable peace is characterized by the absence of physical and structural violence, the elimination of discrimination and self sustainability. Moving towards this sort of environment goes beyond problem solving or conflict management. Peace – building initiatives try to fix the core problems that underlie the conflict and change the patterns of interaction of the involved parties. They aim to move a given population from a condition of extreme vulnerability and dependency to one of self-sufficiency and well – being.

2.10 Post-conflict peace – building.

Post – conflict peace – building is connected to peace – keeping and often involves demobilization and reintegration programs as well as immediate reconstruction needs. Meeting immediate needs and handling crises is no doubt crucial. But while peace-making and peace-keeping processes are important parts of peace transitions, they are not enough in and of themselves to meet loner-term needs and build a lasting peace.

Long term peace building techniques are designed to fill this gap and to address the underlying substantive issues that brought about conflict. Various transformation techniques aim to move parties away from confrontation and violence, and towards political and economic participation, peaceful relationships and social harmony.

Longer term perspective is crucial to future violence prevention and promotion of more peaceful future. To take care of the future involves articulating desirable structural, systematic and relationship goals. These might include sustainable economic development, self-sufficiency, equitable social structures that meet human needs and building positive relationships. (Apollos 2008).

Peace – building measures also aim to prevent conflict from re-emerging. Through the creation of mechanisms that enhance cooperation and dialogue among different identity groups, these measures can help parties manage their conflict of interests through peaceful means. This might include building institutions that provide procedures and mechanisms for effectively handling and resolving conflict e.g. societies can build fair courts, capacities for labour negotiation, systems of civil society, reconciliation and a stable electoral process. Such designing of new dispute. Resolution system is an important part of creating a lasting peace.

The aim is to replace the spiral violence’s and destruction with a spiral of peace ad development, and create an environment conducive to self- sustaining and durable peace.

2.11 Structural dimension: Addressing root causes.

The structural dimension of peace-building focuses on social, economic and political foundation that serves the needs of the population. Thus, in order to establish durable peace, parties must analyze the structural causes of the conflict and initiate social structural change. The promotion of substantive and procedural justice through structural means typically involves institution building and the strengthening of civil society.

Avenues of political and economic transformation include social structural change to remedy political or economic injustice, reconstruction programs designed to help communities ravaged by conflicts revitalize their economies, and the institution of effective and legitimate restorative justice systems. Peace building initiatives aim to promote non violent mechanisms that eliminate violence, foster structures that meet basic human needs and maximize public participation.

To provide fundamental services to its citizens, the state needs strong executive, legislative and judicial institutions. Many point to democratization as a key way to create these sorts of peace-enhancing structures. Democratization seeks to establish legitimate and stable political institutions and civil liberties that allow for meaningful competition for political power and broad participation in the selection of leaders and policies. It is important for governments to adhere to principles of transparency and predictability, and laws to be adopted through an open and public process. For the purpose of post-conflict peace building, the democratization process should be part of a comprehensive project to build society’s institutions.

Political structural changes focus on political development State building and the establishment of effective government institutions. This often involves election reform, judicial reform, power-sharing initiative and constitutional parties, creating institutions that provide procedure and mechanisms for effectively handling and resolving conflict, and establishing mechanisms to monitor and protect human rights. Such institution building and infrastructure development typically requires the dismantling, strengthening or reforming of old institutions in order to make them more effective.

Structural change can also be economic. Economic development is integral to preventing future conflict and avoiding a relapse into violence. Economic factors that put societies at risk include lack of access to natural resources such as land. A variety of social structural changes aim to eliminate the structural violence that arise out of a society’s economic system that may favour some sectors of the population at the expense of others.

Economic peace building targets both the micro – and macro-levels and aims to create economic opportunities and ensure that basic needs of the population are met. On the micro economic level, societies should establish micro-credit institution to increase economic activities and investment at the local level, promote inter – communal trade and equal distribution of land as well as expand school enrollment and job training at the macro-economic level.

2.12 The Relational Dimension.

The second integral part of peace-building is reducing the effects of war – related hostility through the repair and transformation of damaged relationships. The relational dimension of peace building centers on reconciliation, forgiveness, trust – building and future imaging. It seeks to minimize poorly functioning communication and maximize mutual understanding.

The essences of reconciliation are the voluntary initiative of the conflicting parties in the conflict and acknowledge and accept responsibility for the part they played. As parties share their experiences, they learn new perspectives and change their perceptions of their enemies. There is recognition of the difficulties faced by the opposing side. Each side expresses sincere regret and remorse and is prepared to apologize for what has transpired. The parties make a commitment to let go of anger and refrain from repeating the injury. Finally there is a sincere effort to redress past grievances and parties to enter a new mutually enriching relationship.

For conflict transformation to take place there must be effective communication and negotiation at both the elite and grass root levels. Through both high and community level dialogues, parties can increase their awareness of their own role in the conflict and develop a more accurate perception of both their and the other groups’ identity. As each group shares its unique history, traditions and culture, the parties may come to understand each other better. International exchange programs and problem-solving workshops are two techniques that can help to change perceptions, built trust, open communication and increase empathy. If these bridge-building communication systems are in place, relations between the parties can improve and any peace agreements they reach will more likely be self-sustaining. Various mass communication and education measures such as peace radio and TV, peace education projects and conflict resolution training can help parties to reach such agreements. Dialogue between people of various ethnicities or opposing groups can lead to deepened understanding and help to change the democratic image of the enemy group. It can also help parties to overcome grief, fear and mistrust and enhance their sense of security.

A crucial component of such dialogue is future imaging, whereby parties often have more in the commonly-shared future they are trying to build. Conflicting parties often have more in common in terms of their visions of the future than they do in terms of their shared violent past.

2.13 Peace-education in conflict Areas

Kenya needs peace-education programs in post-conflict areas for healing purpose and for prevention of future conflicts. The extension of schooling and education opportunities to all, the elimination of disparities in the education system, and the transformation of the totality of the school experience alongside the introduction of peace-education programs are the most effective ways known to prevent conflict and to promote peace in Africa through education (Obura 2002). There are a number of considerations in building peace through education

It makes no sense to educate fewer than all the children in a post-conflict situation. It is a recipe for disaster to create yet another generation of disinherited, idle, poor unskilled and unemployed youth who are angrier than generations past, as the Rwandan youth attest (The children’s summit in Rwanda, 2004). Strategies for reaching all school-age children include extending formal education, including small schools and home schools in remote areas, and developing flexible alternative programs, including outreach.

The education sector has to function at a level of quality that will guarantee equity. It cannot be allowed to descend into unmonitored mediocrity or inequitable delivery, creating new resentments and anger among those least served by the system.

Ministry of education needs to commit not only to the principles of equity (equitable delivery of education, fair distribution of human and material resources) but also to practice them. This means first, allocation of schools, classrooms, and teachers by districts and zone, not by politicians or ethnic allegiance. Second, it means going further than equal or proportionate distribution of resources, namely, to allocation of supplementary assistance to the historically disadvantaged areas until they have caught up with the others. The success of this policy requires regular monitoring to identify changing levels of need and new gains in order to scale assistance up or down across districts.

As a microcosm of society, the school provides an institutional learning context of daily relevance to building social equity. Head teachers and teachers have to be clear on their peace building goals for the school and find incremental ways to attaining them. It is not pedagogically sound to leave to peace education to one teacher or one syllabus. Building peace and promoting equity means making schools less authoritative and more child-friendly (Obura, 2002).

If schools succeeded in implementing the participatory learning methods that most systems have officially espoused, this would by synonymous with practicing equity. But it remains an elusive goal for all but rare projects and exceptional national systems (Tawil, Sobhi and Alexandra Harley 2004)

2.14.0 Education Transforms

Every country that has had continued economic growth has got nearly all the children into school first, education can break the lethal cycle of poverty and conflict. It is one of the things children and parents in conflicts- affected countries want most. They know how important education can be;

2.14.1 The power to protect

With the right support schools can be a refuge during conflict, supportive atmosphere give children some normality and build their self- confidence and self- esteem. Good quality education can also offer psychological support and healing and protect children from physical harm, exploitation and violence.

2.14.2 Peace and prosperity

Education promotes peace and can foster possibility of a stable future. It can encourage conflicts resolution, tolerance human rights and citizenship. It reduces both poverty and inequality and lays the foundation for countries which are prosperous and well governed every year of school increases individual wages for both men and women by a worldwide average of 10 percent. A mothers education can significantly affect her children survival, increasing the likelihood they will go further in school

It’s not just enough to get children into school. The education they received must be good quality that means things like trained teachers, reasonable class sizes and

appropriate curricula. These are what give children opportunities and hope for a better future good quality education can encourage children to respect values and give them the confidence and ability to question intolerance and conflict.

All sectors of society must come together to build “ethical framework: integrating traditional values of cooperation through religious and community leaders with international legal standards such as the United Nations conventions on the rights of the child, some of the ground work for this can be laid in schools both the content and the process of education should promote peace, social justice respect for human rights and the acceptance of responsibility. Children need to learn the skills of negotiations, problems solving, critical thinking and communication that will enable them to resolve conflicts without resolving to violence- to achieve these goals a number of countries have already undertaken peace education programme. In Lebanon the education for peace programme jointly undertaken in 1989 by the children Lebanese Government NGO, youths volunteers and UNICEFF and benefits thousands of children. The student palaver conflicts management, programme in Liberia employees adolescent as a resource in peer conflicts resolution and mediation activities in schools in Siri- lanka an education for conflicts resolution programme has been integrated into primary and secondary school education.

Even situations of armed conflicts. It is important to carry on educating children and young people no matter how difficult the circumstances education promotes their psychosocial and physical well- being, teachers can recognize signs survival information on issues such as personal safety and health.

2.15 Summary of the chapter

The chapter explores education investment in the world, financing of secondary education in Kenya. The relationship between physical facilities and teacher/pupil ratio which are inputs in the education system that has direct influence on retention. When there is conflict in an area, it affects this inputs and thus creates wastage in the education system. The chapter discusses the conflict theories and peace building in post conflict areas.

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.0Introduction

The chapter covers the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose with economy in procedure. It outlines the study area, study population and sample size, sampling procedure, research design, data collection instruments, validity, reliability of instruments, data collection procedure and data analysis

3.1 The Study Area

The study was carried out in Mt. Elgon District which is one of the eight Districts in Western Province. The District borders the republic of Uganda to the North and West, Trans Nzoia District to the East and Bungoma to the South, Republic of Kenya (2002-2008) Mt. Elgon District Development plan. It covers an area lying in the latitudes 0o48’north and 1030’ north. It also lies in Longitude 34022’ and 35010’ East.

The District occupies an area of 936.75 Km2. with Mt. Elgon Forest occupying 609.6 Km2. The District is divided in 4 Divisions namely Kapsokwony, Kaptama, Kopsiro, and Cheptais which are further sub divided into sixteen locations. It is also sub-divided into forty sub-locations (Commissioners’ Office Kapsokwony, 2001).

The economic activities of the people in the study area are farmers who grow crops and keep livestock. The area was ideal for conducting this study as it was rocked by internal conflict in recent years.

3.2 Study Population and Sample Size

The target population for this study comprised of 25 secondary schools in the District. These are distributed in four divisions. Of these schools, 2 are boarding boys, 2 are boarding girls schools, 8 are mixed boarding while 13 are mixed day. The total student population in the schools is 6080. These consist of 3536 boys and 2544 girls. The schools are served by 177 teachers of whom 130 are men while 47 are female.

3.3. Sampling Procedure

The sampling frame took into consideration the heterogeneous nature of the population. Efforts were made to include as many as possible of the variety of aspects that stratify the population.. Stratified sampling techniques was used to select 16 secondary schools from a population of 25 secondary schools in the district. This translates to 64 per cent of the school population. Form three students in the selected schools were used. This is because they have adequate experience about the variables under consideration. Form four students were not be use to avoid disrupting the examination preparation process in this schools. In total 416 students participated in the study which translated to 46%. Class teachers that were teaching Form three were purposively selected because they had privileged information about the students. Head teachers of the selected schools were also purposively selected because of their role as custodians of school records. In total the study expects to use 459 participants.

3.4 Research Design

The research is descriptive survey design. According to Ogula (1988), surveys are an efficient method of collecting descriptive data regarding the characteristics of the population, current practices and conditions or needs, the researcher intends to determine and report the way things are (Mugenda and Muganda 1999). Given the above stated attribute, a survey research design was adopted in this study in order to capture descriptive data from selected sample and generalize the findings to the population from which the sample was collected.

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

Three data collection instruments were used namely Questionnaire for Students (QS), Questionnaire for Teachers (QT), Interview Schedule for Head Teachers (ISHT). Questionnaire for Students sought information about their family background and school related factors. Questionnaire for teachers was designed to collected data on teacher characteristics and student school attendance. Interview Schedule for Head Teacher sought information on the school policies currently applied that may affect student retention. Documents such as register, school enrolment returns and teacher return was analyzed.

3.6. Validity

The validity of the instruments was determined by use of experts in the department of Educational Management and Policy Studies (EMPS). These experts were requested to rate the instrument with regard to its content validity. A unanimous declaration of the instrument as valid was to lead to its adoption. Otherwise it was revised until it is unanimously accepted.

3.7. Reliability of Instruments

Reliability of research instruments was determined by conducting a pilot study in one school outside the district under study. Test-retest method was used. Instruments were administered to respondents and the process repeated after. Pearson Moment Correlation coefficient was estimated for the two tests. A correlation coefficient of 0.6 was found which led to the adoption of the instrument.

3.8 Data collection procedure

The questionnaires were sent to various schools by the researcher with the request to answer the questions. After one month, questionnaires were collected. Personal interview method was used by the researcher to interview the principals in a face-to-face contact.

3.9 Data Analysis

Descriptive and inferential statistics was used to analyze the data collected. The study computed mean, percentages and standard deviation as descriptive statistics.

3.10 Summary of the chapter

The chapter covers the design and methodology was the data was collected from Mt Elgon District an area which was rocked by armed conflicts in the years 2006-2008. 16 schools were selected using stratified sampling technique. Form three students were used in the study and their class teachers. Descriptive survey design was used to capture the descriptive data. Questionnaires and interviews were used has data collection instruments. Validity was determined by the use of experts in the department of Educational Management and Policy studies (EMPS) .A pilot study was conducted to determine the reliability of the instruments. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data collected. The study computed means and percentages as descriptive statistics.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the presentation, analysis, interpretation and discussion of the results obtained from the research. Data obtained was analyzed to investigate the Factors Influencing Students Retention in Armed Conflict Areas: A Case of Secondary Schools in Mount Elgon District.

To establish effects of armed conflicts on parental socio-economic factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District.

To find out the influence of armed conflicts on school related factors that determine retention of students in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District.

To determine effects of armed conflicts on school policies that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District.

4.1 The background information of the respondents

In order for the researcher to be able to gauge the reliability of the data received and know the kind of people he is dealing with it was very necessary for him to find out the background information of the respondents.

4.2 The gender of the respondents

The study sought to find out the gender of the teachers and students as shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: The gender of the respondents

From the findings most of the students 215(51.7%) stated that they were males with a high number of the teachers 18(66.7%) also stating the same.

The findings from the study implied that most of the views obtained from the study are from male respondents.

4.2.1 The age bracket of the students

The study also sought to find out the age bracket of the students as shown in table 4.1.

Table 4.1: The age bracket of the students

Age bracket of the students	Frequency	Percentage
None response	5	1.2
Below 12 years	4	1.0
13-15 years	106	25.5
16-18 years	301	72.4

From the findings most of the students 301 (72.4%) stated that they were aged between 16-18 years

The findings implied that the students are in their right age for the level of education that they are in

The study also sought to establish the age bracket of the teachers as shown below in table 4.2

Table 4.2 The age bracket of the teachers

Age bracket of the teacher respondents	Frequency	Percentage
18-25 years	11	40.7
26-35 years	11	40.7
36-44 years	5	18.5

From the findings, most teachers 11 (40.7%) were aged between 18-25 years an an equal number 11 (40.7%) were aged 26-35 years.

The findings implied that the teachers are still young and energetic to work.

4.2.3 The education qualification of the teachers

The teachers were required to state their highest level of education as shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: The highest level of education of the teachers

From the findings, most of them 19(70.4%) stated that they have learned up to the degree level of education.

The results implied that the teachers are well qualified for their work and they are able to provide good and quality education for their students.

4.2.4 The teaching experience of the teachers

The teachers were also requested to state their teaching experience as shown in the figure 4.3

Figure 4.3: The teaching experience of the teachers

And from the findings most of them 18(66.7%) stated that they have been teaching for less than 5 years.

The results obtained from the study were interpreted to mean that the teachers are not well experienced in their field of teaching.

4.3.0 The Parental Socio-economic Factors that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools in Mt. Elgon District

The parents have a very important role to play in the retention of their children in school. It is with this in mind that the study sought to find out the Parental Socio-economic Factors that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools in Mt. Elgon District.

4.3.1 Parental socio-economic factors that influence retention in secondary schools

Table 4.3: Parental socio-economic factors that influence retention in secondary schools

Factors that influence retention in secondary schools by parents	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Drunkenness of my parents as a result of conflict	156	37.5	105	25.2	29	7.0	88	21.2	38	9.1
I come from one parent family	124	29.8	147	35.3	30	7.2	47	11.3	68	16.3
I take care of my younger brothers and sisters when parents ran away during armed conflicts	159	38.2	113	27.2	25	6.0	29	7.0	90	21.6
My parents have no interest in my education, they think that it does not guarantee me a job due to conflict	131	31.5	81	19.5	32	7.6	59	14.2	113	27.2
I am an orphan	220	52.9	78	18.8	21	5.0	49	11.8	48	11.5
I am married and need to take care of my family	229	55.0	128	30.8	18	4.3	22	5.3	9	2.2
I was doing domestic/household work (chores) at home	166	39.9	80	19.2	18	4.3	92	22.1	60	14.4
Lack of food at home during the conflict period	79	19.0	88	21.2	36	8.7	111	26.7	102	24.5
I am a child from second marriage and my father is unable to support us	138	33.2	127	30.5	20	4.8	50	12.0	81	19.5
Poverty at home after the destruction of our property during the armed conflict	35	8.4	35	8.4	24	5.8	48	11.5	274	65.9
Financial problem after the death of a parent during armed conflict	175	42.1	60	14.4	23	5.5	82	19.7	76	18.3

And from the findings most of them strongly disagreed that drunkenness of their father/mother was the factor 156(37.5%), they take care of their younger brothers and sisters 159(38.2%), their parents have no interest in their education and that they think it does not guarantee them a job 131(31.5%), they are orphans 220(52.9%), they are married and they need to take care of their family 229(55.0%), they were doing domestic/household work (chores) at home 166((39.9%), they are children from second marriage and their father is unable to support them 138(33.2%) and that they have a financial problem after the death of a parent 175(42.1%). Others 147(35.3%) disagreed that they come from one parent family, 111(26.7%) agreed that their retention in secondary school is affected when there is no food and 274(65.9%) strongly agreed that poverty at home after the destruction of their property during the armed conflict influenced their retention in school.

The findings implied that the main parental socio-economic factors that influence retention in secondary schools is lack of food and the poverty at home which was brought about by the destruction of property during the armed conflict. The findings are in line with the results obtained from the interview schedule where majority of the head teachers 14(87.5%) sited that poverty at home is the main factor forcing the students to drop out of school.

4.3.2 The reasons for student absenteeism

The teachers were asked to state their level of agreement with various statements concerning the reason for their student absenteeism as shown in table 4.4

Table 4.4: The reasons for student absenteeism

Reason for absenteeism	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Parents occupation	1	3.7	1	3.7	0	0.0	19	70.4	6	22.2
Bad surrounding, alcohol addiction due to conflict	0	0.0	7	25.9	0	0.0	10	37.0	10	37.0
The environment is not conducive for education during armed conflict	3	11.1	6	22.2	0	0.0	10	37.0	8	29.6
Lack of role models in the immediate community during armed conflict period	0	0.0	3	11.1	0	0.0	17	63.0	7	25.9
Trauma after SLDF attack	1	3.7	0	0.0	0	0.0	12	44.4	14	51.9

And from the findings most of them agreed that the parents occupation 19(70.4%), the environment not being conducive for education 10(37.0%) and lack of role models in the immediate community 17(63.0%) are the reasons for student absenteeism. Others strongly agreed that trauma after SLDF attack 14(51.9%) is a reason for the student absenteeism and 10(37.0%) strongly agreed and agreed that bad surrounding, alcohol addiction is a reason for student absenteeism.

The findings from the study indicate that the parents occupation, bad surrounding, alcohol addiction, the environment not being conducive for education, lack of role models in the immediate community and trauma after SLDF attack are the reasons for student absenteeism in the region.

4.4.0 The School Related Factors that Determine Retention in Secondary Schools in Mt. Elgon District

There are various factors that the schools have that are essential in the determination of retention of students. This study sought to find out this factors and how they determine retention in secondary schools. The study sought to establish from the students the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools as shown in table 4.5

Table 4.5: School related factors that determine retention in secondary schools

	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Lack of textbooks during armed conflicts	74	17.8	65	15.6	21	5.0	119	28.6	137	32.9
Inadequate number of teachers during armed conflict	62	14.9	58	13.9	23	5.5	84	20.2	189	45.4
Lack of teaching facilities	69	16.6	60	14.4	23	5.5	135	32.5	129	31.0
Non-availability of teachers for special education	64	15.4	81	19.5	80	19.2	67	16.1	124	29.8
Lack of physical facilities in armed conflict period	91	21.9	65	15.6	18	4.3	120	28.8	122	29.3
Poor performance in armed conflict period	85	20.4	75	18.0	40	9.6	120	28.8	96	73.1
Inability to gain admission to nearest school during armed period	182	43.8	84	20.2	20	4.8	40	9.6	86	20.7

From the findings most of the students strongly agreed that lack of text books 137(32.9%), inadequate number of teachers 189(45.4%), non-availability of teachers for special education 124(29.8%) and lack of physical facilities 122(29.3%) are the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools. Others agreed that lack of teaching facilities 135(32.5%) and poor performance 120(28.8%) are the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools with others strongly disagreeing that inability to gain admission to nearest school 182(43.8%) is a school related factor that determine retention in secondary schools.

The findings from the study implied that the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools are lack of text books, inadequate number of teachers, lack of teaching facilities, non-availability of teachers for special education, lack of physical facilities e.g. playing grounds, buildings and poor performance.

4.4.1 School related factors causing absenteeism

The teachers were asked to state the school related factors causing absenteeism as shown in table 4.6

Table 4.6: School related factors causing absenteeism

	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
The inability to gain admission to nearest school during armed conflict period	7	25.9	9	33.3	2	7.4	8	29.6	1	3.7
Lack of facilities in schools in armed conflicts period	1	3.7	4	14.8	0	0.0	12	44.4	10	37.0
Non-availability of teachers for special education during armed period	3	11.1	8	29.6	2	7.4	6	22.2	8	29.6
Lack of facilities specifically aimed at disabled children (e.g access ways and toilets) during armed conflict period	4	14.8	9	33.3	0	0.0	9	33.3	5	18.5

From the findings most of the teachers agreed that lack of facilities in schools is the school related factor causing absenteeism and 9(33.3%) disagreed that the inability to gain admission to nearest school is the school related factor causing absenteeism. An equal number of them 8(29.6%) disagreed and strongly agreed that non-availabilities teachers for special education is the school related factor causing absenteeism with 9(33.3%) disagreeing and agreeing that lack of facilities specifically aimed at disabled children (e.g. access ways and toilets) is a school related factor causing absenteeism.

The findings obtained from the study implied that the main school related factor causing absenteeism is lack of facilities in the schools.

4.5.0 School Policies that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools in Mount Elgon District

The schools have various policies which play a major role in the retention of students. The study sought to establish the various school policies that influence retention in secondary schools.

4.5.1 School policies that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools

Various statements were put forward for the students to state their level of agreement as shown in table 4.7

Policies that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
I was readmitted to school after I had dropped out due to conflict	67	16.1	82	19.7	13	3.1	131	31.5	123	29.6
I was allowed to learn without having cleared fees during armed conflict period	129	31.0	138	33.2	9	2.2	62	14.9	78	18.8
The school principal made visits to my home for discussion with my parents and encourage me to comeback to school after the conflict	122	29.3	87	20.9	23	5.5	73	17.5	111	26.7
The school allowed me to remain in school during the holidays because my family had been displaced during the conflict	101	24.3	82	19.7	20	4.8	139	33.4	74	17.8
Teachers provided us with guidance and counseling programs regularly	35	8.4	31	7.5	19	4.6	124	29.8	207	49.8
The school introduces remedial teaching during morning, evening and weekends to cover the lost time during the conflict	56	13.5	40	9.6	19	4.5	158	38.0	143	34.4
During the time of armed conflict the school organized for our security in school	102	24.5	27	6.5	29	7.0	81	19.5	177	42.5

Table 4.7: School policies that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools

And most of the student respondents strongly agreed that teachers provided them with guidance and counseling programs regularly 207(49.8%) and that during the time of armed conflict the school organized for their security in school 177(42.5%). Others agreed that they were readmitted to school after they had dropped out due to conflict 131(31.5%), the school allowed them to remain in school during the holidays because their family had been displaced during the conflict 139(33.4%) and that the school introduces remedial teaching during morning, evening and weekends to cover the lost time during the conflict. Most of the respondents strongly disagreed that the school principal made visits to their home for discussion with their parents and encourage them to comeback to school after the conflict 122(29.3%) and others disagreed that they were given bursaries to pay school fees because their parents were unable.

The findings from these results clearly indicate that the school principals did not make visits to their homes to encourage them to come back to school and the students were not given bursaries to pay school fees.

4.5.2 School policies that ensure students retention

The teachers were requested to state the school policies that ensure students retention as shown in table 4.8

Table 4.8: School policies that ensure students retention

School policies that ensure students retention	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Students’ guidance and counseling	1	3.7	1	3.7	0	0.0	13	48.1	12	44.4
Allocating bursary to needy and the affected students	6	22.2	2	7.4	0	0.0	7	25.9	12	44.4
Sponsoring the bright students	7	25.9	1	3.7	0	0.0	5	18.5	14	51.9
Readmitting students who left school due to conflict	0	0.0	1	3.7	0	0.0	15	55.6	11	40.7

And from the findings most of the teachers strongly agreed that allocating bursary to needy and the affected students 12(44.4%) and sponsoring the bright students 14(51.9%) are school policies that ensure students retention. Others agreed that students’ guidance and counseling 13(48.1%) and readmitting students who left school due to conflict 15(55.6%) are the school policies that ensure students retention.

The findings obtained from the teacher’s response were not inline with the ones given by the students. Therefore, it is not very clear of the school policies that ensure students retention but from the interview schedule it was discovered that the main policy applied to ensure students are retained in school is through guidance and counseling as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers.

4.6.0 The Influence of Armed Conflict on Retention of Students in Secondary Schools in Mt Elgon District in the Years 2007 and 2008

In any region that is affected by armed conflict the learning activities of the region are mostly affected by the situation. The study tried to find out the influence of Armed Conflict on Retention of Students in Secondary Schools in Mt Elgon District in the Years 2007 and 2008.

4.6.1 The effects of armed conflict on retention

The study also went ahead and sought from students the effects of armed conflict on the retention of students in secondary school in Mt. Elgon District as shown in table 4.9

Table 4.9: The effects of armed conflict on retention

Effects of armed conflict	Yes	No	None response
	F	%	F	%	F	%
The school enrolment went up	42	10.1	342	82.2	32	7.7
Teachers sought transfer to safer places	378	90.9	26	6.3	12	2.9
Schools were closed	403	96.9	8	1.9	5	1.2
School properties were stolen	389	93.5	15	3.6	12	2.9
Conflict affected the construction of school buildings	389	93.5	21	5.0	6	1.4
We missed lessons in many days because teachers could not turn up due to conflict	392	94.2	16	3.8	8	1.9
Teachers were not working together in school evident by often quarreled by publicity	188	45.2	221	53.1	7	1.7
Teachers sort transfers after the conflict leading to poor teacher/students ratio	362	87.0	50	12.0	4	1.0
Worried/fear after SLDF attacks	393	94.5	11	2.6	12	2.9
Run away, out of fear of the military operation to flush out the SLDF militia	359	86.3	50	12.0	7	1.7

And from the findings most of the respondents agreed that due to armed conflicts teachers sought transfer to safer places 378(90.9%), schools were closed 403(96.9%), school properties were stolen 389(93.5%), the conflict affected the construction of school buildings 389(93.5%), the students missed lessons in many days because teachers could not turn up due to conflict 392(94.2%), teachers sort transfers after the conflict leading to poor teacher/students ratio 362(87.0%), there was developed worry/fear after SLDF attacks 393(94.5%) and that there was run away, out of fear of the military operation to flush out the SLDF militia 359(86.3%). The results obtained from the interview schedule showed that many of the students left school due to the conflict and it also led to absenteeism as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers and that it also led to poor performance as supported by 13(81.3%) of the head teachers.

The study also sought to establish from the teachers the effects of conflict in the school and in students retention as shown in table 4.10

Table 4.10: Effect of conflict in school and in student retention

Effect of conflict in school	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Enrolment went up	18	66.7	7	25.9	0	0.0	0	0.0	2	7.4
Teachers sought transfer to safer places	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	9	33.3	18	66.7
Schools were closed	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	6	22.2	21	77.8

Effect of conflict in student retention	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
The schools are performing poorly	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	13	48.1	14	51.9
There is inadequate staff in schools	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	10	37.0	17	63.0
Parents are still traumatized	0	0.0	2	7.4	0	0.0	9	33.3	16	59.3
People still fear recurrence of conflict	0	0.0	1	3.7	0	0.0	10	37.0	16	59.3

And from the findings most of the teachers 18(66.7%) strongly disagreed that the enrolment of the school went up due to the conflict, an equal number of them strongly agreed that teachers sought transfer to safer places and 21(77.8%) also strongly agreed that the schools were closed due to conflict. Most of the teachers strongly agreed that due to conflict the schools are performing poorly 14(51.9%), there is inadequate staff in schools 17(63.0%), the parents are still traumatized 16(59.3%) and that people still fear recurrence of conflict 16(59.3%). The results obtained from the interview schedule showed that the head teachers believe that provision of funds in the affected areas, provision of special guidance and counseling program to help the students cope with conflict situation and charging low/affordable fees could help retain the students in school as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers respondents. All of the head teachers agreed that provision of peace education programs is necessary.

The findings obtained from the study clearly indicate that there were many negative

effects to education which were brought about by the armed conflict in Mt. Elgon region.

4.6.2 How conflict affected the teachers work in school

The teachers were asked to state how conflict has affected their work in school as shown in table 4.11

Table 4.11: How conflict affected the teachers work in school

Effect of conflict to teachers work	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
The teachers were not working in harmony	1	3.7	1	3.7	0	0.0	9	33.3	16	59.3
I was forced to seek new residence far from school	1	3.7	1	3.7	0	0.0	7	25.9	18	66.7
Given choice you could rather teach in conflict free district	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	8	29.6	19	70.4
The insecurity in the region was the main cause of my fear in the school	0	0.0	0	0.0	1	3.7	7	25.9	19	70.4
The cost of life increased due to transport to and from school	1	3.7	1	3.7	0	0.0	9	33.3	16	59.3

And from the findings most of them strongly agreed that they were not working in harmony 16(59.3%), they were forced to seek new residence far from school 18(66.7%), given a choice they would rather teach in a conflict free district 19(70.4%), insecurity in the region was the main cause of their fear in the school 19(70.4%) and that the cost of life increased due to transport to and from school.

4.6.3 Effect of conflict on resource utilization

The teachers were also asked to state the effect of conflict on resource utilization as shown in table 4.12

Table 4.12: Effect of conflict on resource utilization

Effect of conflict on resource utilization	SD	D	U	A	SA
	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%	F	%
Classes were abandoned because of conflicts	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	13	48.1	14	51.9
Books and libraries were abandoned	0	0.0	2	7.5	0	0.0	12	44.4	13	48.1
School properties were stolen during the conflict	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	13	48.1	14	51.9
Teaching facilities were destroyed	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	8	29.6	19	70.4
Conflict affected institutional development	0	0.0	0	0.0	0	0.0	11	40.7	16	59.3

And from the findings most of them strongly agreed that the classes were abandoned because of conflicts 14(51.9%), books and libraries were abandoned 13(48.1%), school properties were stolen during the conflict 14(51.9%), teaching facilities were destroyed 19(70.4%) and that conflict affected institutional development 16(59.3%).

The findings implied that conflict resulted in the classes, books and libraries being

abandoned, the stealing of school property, destruction of teaching facilities and the institutional development was affected.

4.6.4 How conflict affected textbooks, teachers and teaching/learning material utilization

The study also sought to find out from teachers how armed conflict affected textbooks, teachers and teaching/learning material utilization as shown in table 4.13

Table 4.13: How conflict affected textbooks, teachers and teaching/learning material utilization

Text book allocation	Frequency	Percent
None response	1	3.7
Three students per book	2	7.4
Four students per book	24	88.9
Teacher /students ratio
Teacher per thirty students	6	22.2
Teacher per forty students	1	3.7
Teacher per fifty students	7	25.9
Teacher per sixty students	13	48.1
Teaching/learning materials
Very often	1	3.7
Often	5	18.5
Sometimes	18	66.7
Never	3	11.1

And from the findings most of the teacher 24(88.9%) stated that the textbook allocation is four students per book, 13(48.1%) stated that the teacher/students ratio is a teacher per sixty students and 18(66.7%) stated that sometimes they have the teaching/learning materials available for teaching. The findings obtained from the study indicated that the conflict has led to low use of resources during learning.

4.7 Summary of the Chapter

The study sought to investigate factors influencing student retention in armed conflict areas using Mount Elgon District. From the findings it showed that lack of food at home and poverty after the destruction of property during the conflict were the parental socio-economic factors that influence retention of students in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District. Inadequate number of teachers, lack of text books and physical facilities were the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools in Mount Elgon District and was affected during the armed conflict period. Guiding and counseling was the main school policy that was applied to retain students during the armed conflict period.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter presents a discussion of the Factors Influencing Students Retention in Armed Conflict Areas. The presentation flows in accordance with the study objectives starting with respondents’ background information.

5.1 Summary of Findings

The study sought to investigate the Factors Influencing Students Retention in Armed Conflict Areas using Mount Elgon District Secondary Schools. Its findings discussions were presented in a fairly consistent manner in accordance with the study objectives with the respondents’ background information being the first section after which conclusions and recommendations were drawn

5.1.1 Parental socio-economic Factors that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools in Mt. Elgon District

The study sought to establish the parental socio-economic factors that influence the retention in secondary schools in Mt. Elgon District and various statements were put forward for the student respondents to state their level of agreement with the statements and from the findings most of them strongly disagreed that drunkenness of their father/mother was the factor 156(37.5%), they take care of their younger brothers and sisters 159(38.2%), their parents have no interest in their education and that they think it does not guarantee them a job 131(31.5%), they are orphans 220(52.9%), they are married and they need to take care of their family 229(55.0%), they were doing domestic/household work (chores) at home 166((39.9%), they are children from second marriage and their father is unable to support them 138(33.2%) and that they have a financial problem after the death of a parent 175(42.1%). Others 147(35.3%) disagreed that they come from one parent family, 111(26.7%) agreed that their retention in secondary school is affected when there is no food and 274(65.9%) strongly agreed that poverty at home after the destruction of their property during the armed conflict influenced their retention in school. The findings implied that the main parental socio-economic factors that influence retention in secondary schools is lack of food and the poverty at home which was brought about by the destruction of property during the armed conflict. The findings are in line with the results obtained from the interview schedule where majority of the head teachers 14(87.5%) sided that poverty at home is the main factor forcing the students to drop out of school.

The teachers were asked to state their level of agreement with various statements concerning the reason for their student absenteeism and from the findings most of them agreed that the parents occupation 19(70.4%), the environment not being conducive for education 10(37.0%) and lack of role models in the immediate community 17(63.0%) are the reasons for student absenteeism. Others strongly greed that trauma after SLDF attack 14(51.9%) is a reason for the student absenteeism and 10(37.0%) strongly agreed and agreed that bad surrounding, alcohol addiction is a reason for student absenteeism which implied that the parents occupation, bad surrounding, alcohol addiction, the environment not being conducive for education, lack of role models in the immediate community and trauma after SLDF attack are the reasons for student absenteeism in the region.

5.1.2 School Related Factors that Determine Retention in Secondary Schools in Mt. Elgon District

The study tried to establish the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools and from the findings most of the students strongly agreed that lack of text books 137(32.9%), inadequate number of teachers 189(45.4%), non-availability of teachers for special education 124(29.8%) and lack of physical facilities 122(29.3%) are the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools. Others agreed that lack of teaching facilities 135(32.5%) and poor performance 120(28.8%) are the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools with others strongly disagreeing that inability to gain admission to nearest school 182(43.8%) is a school related factor that determine retention in secondary schools which implied that the school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools are lack of text books, inadequate number of teachers, lack of teaching facilities, non-availability of teachers for special education, lack of physical facilities e.g playing grounds, buildings and poor performance.

The teachers were asked to state the school related factors causing absenteeism and from the findings most of the teachers agreed that lack of facilities in schools is the school related factor causing absenteeism and 9(33.3%) disagreed that the inability to gain admission to nearest school is the school related factor causing absenteeism. An equal number of them 8(29.6%) disagreed and strongly agreed that non-availability of teachers for special education is the school related factor causing absenteeism with 9(33.3%) disagreeing and agreeing that lack of facilities specifically aimed at disabled children (e.g access ways and toilets) is a school related factor causing absenteeism which implied that the main school related factor causing absenteeism is lack of facilities in the schools.

5.1.3 School Policies that Influence Retention in Secondary Schools in Mount Elgon District

Various statements were put forward for the respondents to state their level of agreement and most of the student respondents strongly agreed that teachers provided them with guidance and counseling programs regularly 207(49.8%) and that during the time of armed conflict the school organized for their security in school 177(42.5%). Others agreed that they were readmitted to school after they had dropped out due to conflict 131(31.5%), the school allowed them to remain in school during the holidays because their family had been displaced during the conflict 139(33.4%) and that the school introduces remedial teaching during morning, evening and weekends to cover the lost time during the conflict. Most of the respondents strongly disagreed that the school principal made visits to their home for discussion with their parents and encourage them to comeback to school after the conflict 122(29.3%) and others disagreed that they were given bursaries to pay school fees because their parents were unable.

The teachers were requested to state the school policies that ensure students retention and from the findings most of the teachers strongly agreed that allocating bursary to needy and the affected students 12(44.4%) and sponsoring the bright students 14(51.9%) are school policies that ensure students retention. Others agreed that students’ guidance and counseling 13(48.1%) and readmitting students who left school due to conflict 15(55.6%) are the school policies that ensure students retention. The findings obtained from the teachers response were not inline with the ones given by the students. Therefore, it is not very clear of the school policies that ensure students retention but from the interview schedule, it was discovered that the main policy applied to ensure students are retained in school is through guidance and counseling as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers.

5.1.4 The Influence of Armed Conflict on Retention of Students in Secondary Schools in Mt Elgon District in the Years 2007 and 2008

The study also went ahead and sought to find out the effects of armed conflict on the retention of students in secondary school in Mt. Elgon District and from the findings

most of the respondents agreed that due to armed conflicts teachers sought transfer to safer places 378(90.9%), schools were closed 403(96.9%), school properties were stolen 389(93.5%), the conflict affected the construction of school buildings 389(93.5%), the students missed lessons in many days because teachers could not turn up due to conflict 392(94.2%), teachers sort transfers after the conflict leading to poor teacher/students ratio 362(87.0%), there was developed worry/fear after SLDF attacks 393(94.5%) and that they ran away, out of fear of the military operation to flush out the SLDF militia 359(86.3%). The results obtained from the interview schedule showed that many of the students left school due to the conflict and it also led to absenteeism as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers and that it also led to poor performance as supported by 13(81.3%) of the head teachers.

The teachers were asked to state the effects of conflict in the school and in students retention and from the findings most of them 18(66.7%) strongly disagreed that the enrolment of the school went up due to the conflict, an equal number of them strongly agreed that teachers sought transfer to safer places and 21(77.8%) also strongly agreed that the schools were closed due to conflict. Most of the teachers strongly agreed that due to conflict the schools are performing poorly 14(51.9%), there is inadequate staff in schools 17(63.0%), the parents are still traumatized 16(59.3%) and that people still fear recurrence of conflict 16(59.3%). The results obtained from the interview schedule showed that the head teachers believe that provision of funds in the affected areas, provision of special guidance and counseling programme to help the students cope with conflict situation and charging low/affordable fees could help retain the students in school as supported by 14(87.5%) of the head teachers respondents. All of the head teachers agreed that provision of peace education programs is necessary which implied that there were many negative effects to education which were brought about by the armed conflict in Mt. Elgon region.

The teachers were asked to state how conflict has affected their work in school and from the findings most of them strongly agreed that they were not working in harmony 16(59.3%), they were forced to seek new residence far from school 18(66.7%), given a choice they would rather teach in a conflict free district 19(70.4%), insecurity in the region was the main cause of my fear in the school 19(70.4%) and that the cost of life increased due to transport to and from school. The findings clearly indicate that conflict made teachers not to work in harmony, it forced them to seek new residence far from school, it made them prefer to teach in a conflict free district, the insecurity caused fear in the schools and the cost of life increased due to transport to and from school. The teachers were also asked to state the effect of conflict on resource utilization and from the findings most of them strongly agreed that the classes were abandoned because of conflicts 14(51.9%), books and libraries were abandoned 13(48.1%), school properties were stolen during the conflict 14(51.9%), teaching facilities were destroyed 19(70.4%) and that conflict affected institutional development 16(59.3%). The findings implied that conflict resulted in the classes, books and libraries being abandoned, the stealing of school property, destruction of teaching facilities and the institutional development was affected. The study also tried to find out how conflict affected textbooks, teachers and teaching/learning material utilization and from the findings most of the teachers 24(88.9%) stated that the textbook allocation is four students per book, 13(48.1%) stated that the teacher/students ratio is a teacher per sixty students and 18(66.7%) stated that sometimes they have the teaching/learning materials available for teaching which implied the conflict has led to low resources used during learning.

5.2 Conclusion

The study sought to find out the Factors Influencing Students Retention in Armed Conflict Areas: A Case of Mount Elgon District Secondary Schools and in conclusion it can be said that; the main parental socio-economic factors that influence retention in secondary schools is lack of food and the poverty at home which was brought about by the destruction of property during the armed conflict. The parents occupation, bad surrounding, alcohol addiction, the environment not being conducive for education, lack of role models in the immediate community and trauma after SLDF attack are the reasons for student absenteeism in the region. The school related factors that determine retention in secondary schools are lack of text books, inadequate number of teachers, lack of teaching facilities, non-availability of teachers for special education, lack of physical facilities e.g playing grounds, buildings and poor performance. The schools allowing those who had dropped out back to school is one of the school policies used to retain pupils in school.

Due to armed conflicts the enrolment of students went down, teachers sought transfer to safer places, schools were closed, school properties were stolen, the conflict affected the construction of school buildings, the students missed lessons in many days because teachers could not turn up due to conflict, teachers sort transfers after the conflict leading to poor teacher/students ratio, there was developed worry/fear after SLDF attacks and that there was run away, out of fear of the military operation to flush out the SLDF militia.

The findings clearly indicate that conflict made teachers not to work in harmony, it forced them to seek new residence far from school, it made them prefer to teach in a conflict free district, the insecurity caused fear in the schools and the cost of life increased due to transport to and from school. The conflict also resulted in the classes, books and libraries being abandoned, the stealing of school property, destruction of teaching facilities and the institutional development being affected. The conflict has led to low utilization of school resources in the areas affected.

5.3 Recommendations

After conducting the study the following recommendations were made;

There should be provision of bursaries and financial support by the government and stakeholders to the needy students affected by armed conflict through destruction of their property or being orphaned.

There should be the provision of enough learning materials and physical facilities by the government in the schools affected by armed conflict.

There should be the provision of peace education programs in schools by religious groups, Go’s and government in post armed conflict region.

The school should provide guidance and counseling, re-admission, home visits to the students who of dropped out of school in the affected areas.

There should be the provision of security in the schools by the government where conflict is experienced.

5.4 Suggestions for further studies

The study suggests further studies in the following topics;

Effects of peace education on retention of students in armed conflict areas.

The government role in curbing wastage in armed conflict areas

Education and post-armed conflict reconstruction in Kenya.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: INTRODUCTORY LETTER

Dear Students,

I am conducting a study on the factors that influence students retention in Mt. Elgon District. You have been selected to participate in this study. Please fill in the following questionnaire by answering all questions.

You do not need to write the school name or your name on the questionnaire.

The questionnaire is self explanatory with simple questions. Kindly respond to them as per the instructions given in the relevant sections applicable to you.

All information that you shall provide will be treated with utmost confidentiality. This information will only be used for the purpose of the study.

Thank you.

Kiptekwei Geofrey

Researcher

APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

Instructions

Please kindly respond to all items in these questionnaires

Put a (Tick) alongside the option that is most applicable to you or fill in the spaces provided

You do not need to write your name in this questionnaire

Gender: Male: Female

Age :

Less than 12yrs 13yrs-15yrs 16 – 18yrs

Student’s engagement

Please rate the following items in the scale of 5-Strongly agree (SA)

4-Agree (A) 3-Disagree (D) 2-Stronglly disagree (SD)

I-Undecided (U)

Put a tick to indicate your setting in the appropriate box

The reasons for my absenteeism from school

3. Financial problems after the death of father

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

4. Drunkenness of my father/mother (parents)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

5. I come from one parent family

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

6. I take care of my younger brothers and sisters (siblings)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

7. My parents have no interest in my education, because they think that it does not guarantee me job.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

8. I am an orphan

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

9. I am married and need to take care of my family.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

10. I was doing domestic/household work (chores) at home.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

11. During the armed conflict in the District, I was displaced from home.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

12. Due to the change of residence after the armed conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

13. I got fighting together with the Sabot Land Defence Force (SLDF).

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

14. When there is no food at home.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

15. I am a child from second marriage and my father is unable to support us.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

16. Worried/fear after the SLDF attacks.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

17. Poverty at home after the destruction of our properrty during the armed conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

18 Ran away out of fear of the military operation to flush out the SLDF militia.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

How would you describe the effects of Mt. Elgon conflict on your school?

19. School enrolment went up (increased)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

20. Teachers sought transfers to safer places

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

Undecided

21. Schools were closed

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

22. School properties were stolen during the conflict

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

23. Conflicts affected construction of school buildings

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

24. We missed lessons in many days because teachers could not turn up due to conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

25. Teachers were working together in school evident by often quarrels publicly.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

26. Teachers sort transfers after the conflict leading to poor teacher/student ratio

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

Are there school policies that enabled you to remain in school after the conflict

27. I was readmitted to school after I had dropped out due to conflict

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

28. I was given bursary to pay school fees because my parents were unable

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

30. The school principal made visits to my home for discussion with my parents and encouraged me to come back to school after the conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

31. The school allowed me to remain in school during the holidays because my family had been displaced during the conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

32. Teachers provided us with counseling programs regularly.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

Undecided

33. The school introduced the remedial teaching during morning, evening and weekends to cover the lost time during the conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS

Instructions

Please kindly respond to all items in these questionnaires

Put a (Tick) alongside the option that is most applicable to you or fill in the spaces provided

You do not need to write your name in this questionnaire

Gender: Male: Female

Age :

18-25yrs 26-35yrs 36-44yrs 45-50yrs

Above 50yrs

3. Highest level of education attained

diploma degree post-graduate

4. Teaching experience

Less than 5yrs 5-9yrs 10-14yrs 15-19yrs

Above 20yrs

Please rate the following items in the scale of 5-Strongly agree (SA)

4-Agree (A) 3-Disagree (D) 2-Stronglly disagree (SD)

I-Undecided (U)

Put a tick to indicate your setting in the appropriate box

What are the reasons for your student’s absenteeism?

(Home environment (social) factors affecting students’ school attendance)

5. Parents’ occupation

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

6. Bad surrounding, alcohol addiction

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

7. Environment not conducive for education

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

8. Lack of role models in the immediate community

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

9. Trauma after SLDF attack

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

School related factors that are causing absenteeism

10. Inability to gain admission to nearest school.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

11. Lack of facilities in schools

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

12. Non –availability of teachers for special education

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

13. Lack of facilities specifically aimed at disabled children (e.g. access ways and toilets)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

How did the conflict in the region affect your work in school?

14. The teachers were not working in harmony

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

15. I was forced to seek new residence far from school

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

16. Given choice I could rather teach in conflict free district

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

17. The insecurity in the region was the main cause of my fear in the school.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

18.The cost of life increased due to transport to and from school

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

Are there any school policies to ensure students retention?

19. Students’ guidance and counseling

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

20. Allocating bursary to needy and the affected students

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

21. Sponsoring the bright students

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

22. Readmitting students who left school due to conflict

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

How would you describe the effects of Mt. Elgon conflict on your school?

23. School enrolment went up (increased)

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

24. Teachers sought transfers to safer places

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

25. Schools were closed

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

How did conflict affect student retention?

26. The schools are performing poorly

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

27. There is inadequate staff in schools

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

28. Parents are still traumatized

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

29. People still fear recurrence of conflict.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

What were the effects of the conflict on resource utilization in your school?

30. Classes were abandoned because of conflicts

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

31. Books and libraries were abandoned

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

32. School properties were stolen during the conflict

33. Teaching facilities were destroyed

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

34. Conflict affected institutional development

Strongly agree Agree Disagree

Strongly disagree undecided

How did the conflict affect textbooks teachers and teaching/learning material utilization.

35. Text Book allocation.

Each student per book Two students per book

Three students per book Four students per book

36. Teacher/student ratio.

Teacher per thirty students Teacher per forty students

Teacher per fifty students Teacher per sixty students

37. Teaching/Learning materials availability.

Very often Often Sometimes Never

APPENDIX4: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR PRINCIPALS

According to your own view what are the socio-economic factors that are forcing students to drop out of your school?

What are the things that make students remain/retained in your school? (Hardware/Physical/Tangibles)

Which policies are you applying that ensure students are retained in your school after the conflicts in the district?

How did conflict in the district affect students’ attendance in your school?

What should be done to curb students’ dropout in armed conflict areas?

What will you advice education policy makers in tackling wastage in education system through dropout in post-conflict areas?

Will peace education programs be necessary in post-conflict areas for healing purpose and prevention of future conflicts?

APPENDIX 5: RESEARCH AUTHORIZATION

APPENDIX 6: MT. ELGON DISTRICT (Administrative Boundaries)

Parental socio-economic factors

No food

Poverty

Orphaned

School policies

Readmitting after dropping out of school

Home visits retaining of students during the holidays

School related factors

Lack of teachers

No books

Destruction of physical facilities.

School Retention of Students

ARMED CONFLICT

Undecided

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