Alternative strategy: Something you can choose to have out of two or more options.

Counseling: Helping someone to develop self understanding and self

acceptance

Culture: A way of life and social organization of a school

Discipline: Action by management to enforce organizational

Standards.

Effective: Producing of the result that is wanted.

Effectiveness: Refers to the particular effect.

Guidance: Is about helping young people to begin to find themselves

to develop the sense of identity.

Indiscipline: acts of behavior which do not conform to the rules or societal norms.

Mentor: An experienced person who advices and helps somebody

with less experience over a period of time.

Mission statement: Official statement of the aims of school

Pastoral care: Concerned with promoting pupils personal and social

Development and fostering positive attitudes.

Peer mediator: A person of the same age group who advices and helps a person with a problem.

Prevalent: very common.

In this chapter, the researcher attempted to review literature containing information related to the research problem being investigated. These included information on corporal punishment and school discipline, history of corporal punishment, types of discipline, approaches to discipline, and alternative strategies of managing pupil’s indiscipline in primary schools. Additionally sources of literature review included published and unpublished literature in libraries, resource centres, offices and Internet the materials included textbooks, reports, journals and newspapers.

While the early history of corporal punishment is unclear, the practice was certainly present in classical civilizations, being used in Greece, Rome, Egypt and ancient Kingdoms of Israel for both judicial and educational discipline Randall,(2009) . Practices varied greatly, though scouring and beating with sticks were common. Some states gained a reputation for using such punishments cruelly. In Britain it was a fact of life for the British boys, Britain’s famous public schools were once a byword for beating and flogging. Corporal punishments become so ingrained in the British psyche across the centuries that it featured in many works of literature.

Ironically many of the leading public schools were in the vanguard of the first moves towards the abandonment of corporal punishment in the 1960s and 1970s, abolishing the cane in 1987 after along campaign by pressure groups such as the Society of Teachers Opposed to Physical Punishment (STOPP). Many Adults view the demise of corporal punishment as a retrograde step, partly responsible for the indiscipline of modern youth, Sparta used it as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build will power and physical strength.

In Japan the old concept of Konjo was a live and well, Konjo is a disciplinary process intended to instill in young boys a sense of strong spirit. They believe corporal discipline is a necessary education tool, swift and demanding. According to Stenrod,(1999), punishments teach inner power and strength, it is believed that a boy must learn early to accept the authority of the teacher. From the 16th century onwards new trends were seen in corporal punishment, Judicial punishments were increasingly made to public spectacles, with the public beatings of criminals intended as a deterrent to other would be miscreants. Meanwhile early writers on education such as Roger Ascham complained of arbitrary manner in which children were punished; John Locke criticized the central role of corporal punishment in education.

The Kenyan government school system arose, in the days of British colonial government and adopted nineteenth –centaury British traditions of school discipline including, the widespread use of the cane .Corporal punishment was introduced in 1972 under the (school discipline) Education Act. (Mwandato, 2008) For a long time in Kenyan schools, students had been punished for reasons like tardiness, making noise, truancy, bullying, fighting, stealing, disobedience and leaving the classroom or school when the teacher is away. Also using drugs, smoking of cigarettes, falling a sleep in class or failure to complete home work and many others. Caning sometimes was accompanied by hitting, slapping and other forms of violence, thus for most Kenyan children violence is a regular part of the schools experience.

UN convention on human rights insisted that corporal punishment is a violation of human rights and demanded for its ban worldwide (Human Rights Watch 1999). The ban on caning in schools was imposed in 1996 through a circular issued by the Director of Education, it was neither gazette nor enforced. In 2001 in a gazette notice the then Education Minister scrapped sections of the law that permitted corporal punishment, this was in response to what was happening throughout the world .The Children’s Act was passed in 2001 (Ngare, 2008). The purpose of children’s education as enshrined in the convention on the rights of the Childs, Should be the development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and preparations for responsible life in a free society in the spirit of understanding, peace and tolerance. Kenya’s children are its future and there is no excuse for permitting another generation of children to be abused in the name of caning.

School discipline concentrates on the causes of and cures for bad behavior (Munn and Johnstone, 1992). In an educational organization there are many standards or codes of behavior to which teachers, students and non- teaching staff must adhere (Okumbe, 1999). In order to successfully achieve the objectives of a school, college or university, all the members of the educational organizations are required to strictly adhere to the various patterns necessary for maximum performance. The aim of discipline is the training of the conscience which consists in the cultivation of the good will and development of moral insight.

Discipline is a co-operative mental attitude in which each member of the class briefly gives his best, because he feels himself as a member of a corporate body whose aims are recognized as Worthy (Aggarwal ; 2002). Misbehavior on the part of any member is against the whole community, a school therefore needs a clearly recognized policy and system for discipline and what teachers are expected to do to foster it. Further more Dean (1993), noted that discipline should give a positive view of what is expected by way of behavior and the responsibility of teachers for seeing that it is achieved. This should be reinforced by primary schools in Eldoret East District to ensure effective discipline.

According to spring (2002), School discipline is a form of discipline appropriate to the regulation of children or student and maintenance of order in schools. There are laid down rules that guide the conduct of students while attending the school and the students expect to comply with the code of behavior. These are set standards that a school has and each student is expected to adhere so as to keep the school discipline, such standards include clothing, time keeping, social behaviors and work ethics. Ministry of Education (2009), indicates that there are three forms of school discipline, namely preventive, supportive and corrective discipline.

There are three approaches to discipline namely, traditional approach, the free expression movement and its scheme of discipline and lastly the modern scheme of discipline.

The traditional scheme of `handling discipline was guided by the basic idea that the child was born naturally bad. All children were naturally inclined to do evil unless they were controlled properly by adults; such control was effected either through harsh punishment or through reward (Mbithi; 2007). Discipline control through punishment was advocated for because it was believed that physical punishment was a necessary deterrent to tendencies of doing wrong in a child. According to this view, the formation of good disposition in children cannot develop until the evil has been expelled from the child through physical punishment. Obedience was seen as a good sign that evil habits had been done a way with and that good ones were now taking root or were developing in the child.

The view expressed by the traditional scheme of discipline is one in which discipline is seen as a process to expel bad habits from the child through harsh punishment, to create room for the accepted good ones to fill the vacuum. Good habits were in this case imposed on children by adults; discipline was therefore imposed behavior that led to blind obedience to rules through fear of punishment. (Mbithi; 2007). Physical punishment is meant to change or transform the offenders into well behaved individuals. The nature and the degree of reform are both weighed on the scales of obedience determined by the adults. Owing to the authoritarian nature of the traditional scheme of discipline, adults command and children obey without question, this traditional method of discipline is still prevalent in most of the present day schools in Africa.

Many teachers in Africa still make use of the cane or other forms of physical punishment. This form of punishment is seen as the most effective deterrent and as a means of reforming offenders. Another aspect of the traditional scheme of discipline which grows out of the idea of submission of the child to adult control is the idea of reward; hence rewards were used to induce goodness. For example, a child may be promised some sweets if he or she agrees to go to fetch water from the river, thus the idea of reward is more successful in producing desired behavior. Mbithi (2007), states that badness was to be punished, so was goodness to be rewarded, hence rewards have been used to induce goodness.

The traditional scheme of discipline has some draw backs as far as modern educational theory and practice are concerned. First there is enough research evidence, to show that it is a hindrance to learning. Physical punishment for example produces fear, anxiety, resentment and hostility towards schooling in many children. Second, rewards too particularly in their material form are not necessarily the best way of controlling discipline among children. In many ways, rewards have a tendency to condition people to behave in a certain way, as would be required by the authorities, for instance one can pretend to be obedient to certain rules just for the purpose of receiving reward and later revert to the same old unacceptable behavior (Mbithi ;2007). The set up of the traditional scheme of discipline tends to place the adult group, particularly teachers and school administrators level on a high formidable authority. Viewed from this context, the adult group tends to overstretch its authoritarian role in its approach to the control of discipline.

Another scheme of child discipline was advanced by the free expression movement which started in Europe during the 19th century and which quickly spread its popularity to the USA (Mbithi, 2007). The movement was completely opposed to the traditional scheme of discipline, according to the free expression movement, the child was considered to have been born naturally good .The proponents of this scheme believed that in view of its natural goodness, the child should be allowed to grow and develop in an atmosphere of total freedom with no restrictions or any forms of behavior control. All forms of human- made rules or commands were seen to constitute a major hindrance to each Childs natural growth and development. Both the school and the home were expected to be child- centered to their instructional programmes, where authority was replaced by love and where rules of control were replaced by persuasion. This meant that there should be no rules in the school.

The proponents of this movement felt that the Childs personality would not blossom in an environment where rules and other forms of restriction abounded. The proponents of this scheme of discipline overlooked the fact that children are born ignorant and that they need the guidance of adults, in acquiring basic worthwhile habits, knowledge and attitudes as they grow (Mbithi ;2007). When children are allowed to do anything they fancy doing without restrictions, the results can be disastrous, since no society can thrive without rules and authority. In those countries where permissiveness was practiced as a scheme of discipline, there have been some notable difficulties in controlling classroom behavior among school children.

In modern times, discipline as a concept refers to the moral capacity or disposition which when ingrained in the human personality, becomes a powerful habit for self control. Mbithi (2007), believes that discipline is the capacity that enables the individual to use the voice of reason in making the right decision. In the classroom situation, the term discipline may be used to refer to the teacher’s ability to cultivate the culture of respect, for the authority and order among pupils in the class for controlled effective teaching and learning. Such order is good for the peer group relations and social purposes, viewed from a wide perspective and from outside the classroom and the school, the issue of youth discipline cannot be isolated from the prevailing moral climate within the society.

Mbithi (2007), further argues that discipline is something that is learned, this being the case one of the fundamental responsibilities of the family, the school and the religious community, must be that of fashioning good discipline among children under their care. The role of the parents in the life of the child is of capital significance especially of the latter early years (Were, 2003). The family background of every child is very important because the family has a strong bearing or sets the pattern of discipline in the life of an individual. Character values are acquired from home in the family setting, where this has taken place the school reinforces the process, through both its regulatory practice of reinforcing discipline as well as through its informal peer group and teacher role model interactions.

In the school environment children’s conduct is fashioned by two factors, one they are guided to follow the established rules of the school, and these should be carefully explained (Mwende ;2008). Secondly by interacting or copying the behavior of school mates and through emulating the individual character of those teachers whose personalities or lifestyle have proved most appealing to the individual child. The family and the school must seek to create a conducive environment that seeks to enhance the development of worthwhile character value in children. Teachers and parents should lead exemplary lives from which children can copy as they grow and develop into mature individuals (Mbithi, 2007). The larger society under the normal dynamics of change also has a notable influence on the character formation of school going youth.

The mass media plays a crucial role in the character formation of a child. The moral perversion usually screened through the family television, has a great negative impact on school youth discipline. Through some TV school children may learn bad habits such as smoking, violence and other unacceptable behavior patterns. The pornographic literature is equally a hindrance to the moral development of the youth, equally dangerous on the character formation of school youths is the drug menace, whose use and influence has penetrated many schools in Kenya and Africa is general (Mbithi; 2007). Also bad example by some adults in position of influence in society has affected the discipline of the youth in schools.

According to Mbithi (2003), discipline in the traditional Africa community was embraced in the morals of the society. Morals deal with the question of what is right and good, what is wrong and evil in human conduct. African people have a deep sense of right and wrong, in the course of the years this moral sense has produced customs, rules, laws, traditions and taboos which can be observed in each society. These morals are embedded in these systems of behavior and conduct, Africans believed that the morals were given to them by God from the very beginning. The departed and the spirits keep watch over people to make sure that they observe the moral laws and are punished when they break them.

According to Mbithi (2003), Morals deal with human conduct, the conduct has two dimensions the personal conduct which has to do with the personal life of the individual, and the social conduct which deals with the life of society at large, the conduct of the individual within the group or community. Morals have evolved in order to keep society not only a live but in harmony, Without morals there would be chaos and confusion. Morals guide people in doing what is right and good for both their own sake and that of their community. They help people to do their duties to society and enjoy certain rights from society, its morals which have produced the virtues that society appreciate and endeavors to preserve, such as friendship, compassion, love and honesty among others.

Morals sharpen peoples dislikes and avoidance of vices like cheating, treachery, or theft. Morals keep society from disintegration, it gives a sense of inner peace to the one who observes them; because he knows that he is not doing wrong or going against the accepted code of conduct. Many morals have become rooted in the life of the peoples concerned because of a long tradition of doing certain things and avoiding others, for that reason some morals apply in one area but not in another or at one time but not for ever, this is because of differences of culture, language, social structure, economic and political factors as well as changes that take place slowly or rapidly in every society (Mbithi ;2003 ). Each person in African traditional life lives in or as part of a family, in the family individuals are closely bound to each other, both because of blood or marriage and because of living together. The moral order within the family must therefore be complete in order to regulate and maintain its welfare. Moreover Mbithi (2003), noted that in all African families, there is a hierarchy based on age and degree of kinship.

Within the hierarchy there are duties, obligations, rights and privileges dictated by the moral sense of society. There are morals concerned with the hospitality to relatives, friends and strangers, for instance it is held to be a moral evil to deny hospitality even to a stranger. Other family morals concern property, the care of the home, the fields and the animals, there are morals concerning the husband and wife relationship. Moving from family to community morals, the situation becomes more complex as it involves a vast number of people.

There are many morals which govern the welfare of the community. What strengthens the life of the community is held to be good and right, what weakens the life of the community is held to be evil and wrong. There are morals concerning the social, economic and political life of the people as a whole, these covers aspects of life like mutual help in time of need, maintaining social institutions like marriage and family, defending the land in time of invasion or aggression, protecting the children and the weak (Mbithi ;2003). Morals, customs, laws and traditions working together are the main pillars for welfare of society. Morals produce and sanction the other pillars because unless something is felt to be right it will not become a custom or law, when something is a custom, it becomes good and right in the eyes of society.

Ryan (2008) notes that Child discipline is a topic that draws a wide range of interested fields such as parents, professional practice of behavior analysts, developmental psychology, social work and various religious perspectives. According to National Society for the prevention of cruelty to children , methods of child discipline vary widely between cultures and have in recent times changed considerably in some of them. In western society there has been debate in recent years over the use of corporal punishment for children in general and increased attention has been given to the concept of positive parenting, where by instead of punishing the child for its bad behavior, good behavior is encouraged. The same practice should be adopted in the Jay schools.

Corporal punishment has been banned in UK schools for several years, its now taken to refer to history (Samalin, 2008). Since that time teachers have been forced to look at alternative sanctions, often exploiting pastoral care models which require high levels of staffing, space and time (Randall, 2009). Pastoral care permeate all aspects of schools life, it reflect the values, attitudes, benefits and practices of the catholic faith. They create caring and responsible children who will make a positive difference to the modern technological world .

According to Breazley ,(1984) Some schools have adopted behavior policy or a positive approach, this document is a statement of the aims and strategies for ensuring positive behavior. At the beginning of the year a workshop is held to inform parents of the existing practices outlined in the policy, it also outlines the underlying philosophy, purpose, nature, organization and management of pupil behavior. It is a working document designed to enhance the development of positive relations between children, adults working in school, parents and other members of the community.

According to Everton (2003), rules are important in managing pupil’s discipline, they differ from one school to the other, schools have the power to make reasonable regulations on the good order of the pupils, inside and outside the schools. Such regulations should reflect on the influences such as the personality of the head teacher, the tone of the school and interest of the pupils. They should clearly spell out the school policy, rules and regulations at schools should be very few and should be enforced with consistency, fairness and calmness. They should be known to the staff, pupils and more of a positive nature than negative don’ts. According to Abbey primary, one of the schools in Britain, the school golden rules govern the student behavior in school and what is expected of them, for instance they are expected to be gentle, kind and helpful, listen, be honest, and take care of the property these rules are displayed in pictures and texts around the school.

Praising and a system of rewards are more likely to change behavior than blaming and punishing. Using a positive system of reward will increase children self-esteem and thus help them to achieve more (Grey; 2005). Borrowing leave from Abbey primary school, rewards and praise should be given whenever possible, for both work and behavior. According to National Society for the prevention of Cruelty to children, the proponent of positive reinforcement argues that giving the child positive attention and respects when they are not misbehaving, will on this view also act as a reinforce for good behavior. It is very common for children who are otherwise ignored by their parents to turn to misbehavior as away of seeking attention.

In most primary schools in Britain, all members of staff recognize and celebrate appropriate behavior at all times around the school. Through informal praise whenever appropriate, children’s best effort will be celebrated and through display and performance Friedman (1977), believes that rewards can include verbal praise and smiling at children, hugs when children perform well in class or attain the expected behavior, a teacher is expected to recognize that child, by praising or commenting him for his efforts. The teacher may also extend this verbal praise to parents about their children .Pupils could also receive stickers and stamps as a way of recognizing them, Certificates are also issued to those pupils who have shown a positive change.

At Abbey Primary school certificates are very effective in behavior change, other rewards given includes special privileges for instance, giving pupils or student free time and social responsibilities or jobs. For instance pupils who have changed can be made prefects to recognize their effort. With student recognition, commonly held values are taught and recognized including pride, respect, responsibility, caring and honesty. An awards assembly is held periodically to honor students who demonstrate these values and an attempt is made to make sure all students are honored sometimes during the year.

There is what is called the award winning, the second step violence prevention programme which integrate academics with social and emotional learning. Pupils can also learn social skills like empathy, emotion management, problem solving and sharing to reduce behavior problems. In character education programmes, the curriculum includes teaching children to think about how their action affects others, how to manage anger and how to make choices to prevent chronic and severe conduct. To Durojoye (1980), The fast track program has been put in place for children with behavour problems. Fast tracks main goals are to increase communication and bonds between the three domains, enhance children social cognitive and problem – solving skills, improve peer relations and decrease dispute behavior in the home and school. Fast track target children with disruptive behavior and poor peer relations.

Are approaches that involve removing positive reinforcement for unacceptable behavior,this is a method often used for young children. A time out involves isolating the child for a relatively short period of time, generally the giving of time outs is an extremely common parenting practice (Middleton and Hoppley, 2005), it is also widely misunderstood and misapplied. Most people think the purpose of time outs is punishment, ideally the time outs is intended to give an over-excited child time to calm down. It is therefore most effective when a young child is throwing temper tantrum or is other wise misbehaving due to excitement.

As noted by Middleeton and Hobleys, (2005). The theory behind the time- out is that children at these ages are often frightened by their own lack of control when they go through tantrums. On this view if the child is given a chance to regain self –control on their own in a quite place free of distractions, they will often be relieved to do so. Thus it is claimed time outs helps children develop internal self-control, whenever with more punitive methods likes spanking the child relies on someone else to forcibly control them. This is one reason why even parents who consider spanking acceptable often use time- out instead for situations like a young child’s temper tantrums.

Distraction is a method of stopping young children from continuing a problem behavior, for example if the parents sees the young child involved in unacceptable behavior, the parent suggest to the child a more interesting alternative, such as reading a book together and dance around the room, sitting together with the rocker, singing songs excreta (Maccoby and Martin ,1983). This is followed by continuing to play with the child until its unacceptable behaviors is forgotten, then taking it to the area for other activities in order to assure that it will not return to it. The destruction method relies on the fact that young children have very short attention spans, thus it becomes less useful as the child matures.

Advocates of this method often argue that, as a child is young enough to be reliably destructed from misbehavior (Maccoby and martin, 1983), it’s also too young to have the necessary attention span or capacity for self control to make deliberate long time changes to its behavior. Thus they argue punishing a child at this age would be pointless and serve to create unnecessary resentment (Grey, 2008) .Additionally NSPCC noted, distraction can involve hugging, hugging is claimed by supporters to be useful for children not yet capable of reasoning, such as those aged two. This is used mainly when the child is involved in persistent negative behavior or in destructive behavior. The child is picked up and hugged in such a way that the child does not get hurt, but ceases its behavior. As the child begins to quiet, its rocked, sung to or spoken to, in soft calming tones, it is then removed from the room and given an activity that distracts it from its previous concern.

Child will come to the age (a round six) when reasoning is a very effective tool for discipline (Maccoby and Martin, 1983). At this time the child may be told for example, if he plays with the glass apple his hands are small and it could fall, it will break and cut his hands and the glass will be thrown away. This statement could be followed by such activities as sitting on the floor, placing the apple on the carpet and letting the child caress it for a short time, then putting it away.

This will satisfy the child’s natural healthy curiosity and opens up the possibility for communication, but it also gives the child one or more time with the parent. In addition, it allegedly also helps the child learn how to decide on their own what actions should be avoided. Beck (1996), noted that using reasoning to accompany punishment when it is deemed necessary brings up the method of teaching and communication as an alternative method. This is the ideal method of long-term control of behavior, because it develops the conscience, cognitive skill, and self-discipline. Research shows that the development of conscience is related to parental warmth and the use of reasoning as a technique of discipline. When the child has developed self-control and one’s conscience to the extent that one will no longer do what one knows is wrong even when one knows one will not be punished, then we could say ones character education has been successful.

A role is the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others (Ryan, 2008). Role reflects a persons position in the social system, with the accompanying rights and obligations. According to Kenya Episcopal Conference (2003), a role model is someone who has good characters and values that are worthy emulating ,due to their positions of authority and interaction with the learners on a daily basis, teachers have tremendous influence on the lives and aspirations of learners, this influence may have positive or negative influence. In addition Mwende (2008), argues that role Models influence us in the right way, help get the best out of us, and often inspires us towards what we want to be.

A Mentor is a role model who guides another person, who is less experienced or younger than him to share valuable advice on roles to play and behaviors to avoid. Mentors teach, advice, coach, support, and encourage. Mentors must be able to commit time and energy to help another person change, able to communicate effectively and share ideas in a non - threatening fashion and enjoy one to one development of others (Ivancevich, 2008). Mentoring can be used as a means to develop leaders, most mentor-mentee relationship develop over time and the fruits of maturing can extend beyond the individuals involved.

Advocates of non-violent discipline claim that modeling is an extremely effective disciplinary tool, but it also places the greatest demands upon the parent. According to this view, the parent must consistently show the child what kind of life is expected of him by not doing anything that the parent will not allow the child to do. Showing the child appropriate behavior will teach the child faster and more deeply than will disciplinary action for misbehavior, (Maccoby& Maritn ;1983). The combination of a dedicated, sincere and consistent effort on the part of the parent to model appropriate behavior with the ability to admit errors and apologize, creates reciprocal respect for the parent and parent’s resentment based on hypocrisy and double standards. All surroundings, friends, family and Neighbors can be role models, children are bound to emulate what they observe.

Scolding and consequences are other alternatives to corporal punishment in primary schools in Britain. Just as verbal praise is a powerful reinforce for most children, verbal scolding can be an effective punishment (Finney ,2007). When a child is engaged in a behavior that is not welcomed, he or she is scolded and this will make the child not to repeat the same mistakes, consequences on the other hand are effective. Often when a child misbehaves, there are natural consequences, these consequences should act as the child’s discipline. Once this way the lesson will be remembered for longer than will punishment with reason (Lovery, 2009). Children should be able to learn from their mistakes, for instance if a child insists to do something despite being told the consequences but insist on, he should be left to proceed and only after experiencing the consequences is when he can learn.

The ban of corporal punishment in 2001, and introduction of free primary education in 2003 in Kenya, were major great developments in education. Proportionately, the problems in schools have arisen due to lack of proper guidance and counseling facilities in the schools thus many pupils are left in dilemma. Guidance and counseling concepts have been in existence as long as humanity, we have through the ages sought to understand ourselves, often counsel and aid to develop our potential. Mutie and Ndambuki (1999), defines guidance as assistance given to individuals in making intelligent choices and adjustments, it is a means of helping individuals to understand and use wisely their education, vocational and personal opportunity in achieving satisfactory adjustments to school and life in general.

It is a process, developmental in nature by which an individual is assisted to understand, accept and utilize his or her aptitudes, interests and attitudinal patterns in relations to his or her aspirations (Mutie and Ndambuki ;1999). Guidance is a continuous and sequential educational process which should be provided throughout ones life. As the individuals goes from home on to school and into the society there will be need for parents, the teachers and later the community to Co-operate so that the individual is guided so as to achieve the right behavior and values.

The guidance and counseling as a movement was started in America at the beginning of the 20th century, as a reaction to change process in an industrialized society (Achieng ;2007) .The principles of guidance have remained the same, but the method and focus have evolved overtime, at the beginning of the guidance movement the focus was on the provision of occupational information, later there was need for more objective methods of assessing individuals for different jobs.

Pioneers of the movement had varying approaches to guidance and they included, Frank Parsons of Boston USA, George Meril in 1885 at the California School of Mechanical Arts in San Francisco, and Gudwin in 1911 who organized guidance programmes in US who came up with the following condition necessary for a successful vocational guidance programme in schools, the appointment of a guidance supervisor (Achieng ;2007) School organization which permits the close contact of at least one-student and teacher or a logical analysis of each pupil/teacher. In 1912 Weaver organized a number of local agencies to deal with guidance and placement.

Achieng (2007), noted that in the traditional context, guidance involved educating the youth about the traditions and cultures of the community this was the work of the Elders who were the source of knowledge. The objective of guidance was to mould the individual fit in the society, this was carried out through dances, stories and provocative or non-provocative verbal expression. In addition Wango (2007), argues that children were socialized into the community through history, oral narratives, proverbs and riddles.

According to Were (2003), guidance and counseling had been engraved in the African society since time immemorial. It was entrusted to the immediate and extended family, where individuals confided in and depended upon their relatives for advice when faced with problems emanating from the self and the environment. Guidance started from the time the child was born but intensified during initiation of boys and girls to adulthood.

The year from birth to twelve were considered the formative years and was therefore a very important stage in guidance, guidance at this stage involved developmental education which was aimed at the total development of the child. The child was guided on how to grow up, what to be, what to do, how to consolidate his/her virtues. This way the child learned the use of appropriate language, respect for elders, life skills such as fetching water, collecting firewood, cultivation, hunting, self-defense, taboos and relationships within the kinship groups. In our Kenyan schools today children should also be guided on good moral

Adolescence in most African communities was considered a critical stage in ones development. It was concerned with inculcating gender, acquisition of knowledge and skills which culminated in the rites of passage like initiation which marked the transition from childhood to adulthood (Were ; 2003) .They could now consider marriage but were to be guided by the society’s norms ,having become adults the youth were taught how to acquire and care for wealth. After initiation and other rites of passage, the youth were now considered to be adults, they formed age groups which provided the workforce for most African communities. Guidance at this level was carried out by the elderly and more experienced members of the society. Survival skills and mental health were also taught. Care of the less privileged in the society such as the widows, orphans and disabled was also encouraged.

In old age, the elderly were a source of wisdom, their guidance came from interacting with age mates or through their roles as they guided others (Mbili ;2003) .Guidance in the traditional structure was an educational service provided within an informal set up. The formalization and integration of guidance services into the formal education systems only began in the late fifties. This was as a result of modernization, rural – urban migration and disintegration of family life among other issues. Should this be adopted in schools it will be one of alternative strategies being used to handling indiscipline.

In forbidding the hitting of children in schools some years back, Kenya joined most of the rest of the world, where physical force against the young was regarded as a cruel, inhuman, or degrading practice. Recognizing this, many nations have ended the practice of school corporal punishment and aggressively sought to train teachers in alternative means of maintaining discipline and motivating children (Lacey, 2006).

The need for Guiding and Counseling Services in Kenya became more important in the early 1960’s, when the country was anticipating independence. There was need to train human power and vocational guidance was part and parcel of this preparation. At the end of 1962, the Ministry of Labour in collaboration with the Ministry of Education came up with a plan to offer vocational guidance with the help of career masters in schools. In 1964 and again in 1970, it was recommended by the FORD foundation report that all career masters and school libraries should be supplied with a comprehensive career guide work (Kenya Episcopal Conference ;2007). In 1965 the Ministry of labour produced a booklet called choosing careers, in 1967 guidance and counseling careers (GSC) was introduced in Kenya under the Ministry of Education, in the same year the Ministry of labour (MOL) produced another booklet entitled helping you to choose a career. G&C has been the concern of some of the Education Commissions for instance in 1976 the Gachati report recommended that the MOE expands its services to include Guidance and Counseling Services (GCS). The Kamunge report of 1988, further recommended that GCS should be established in schools and senior teachers to be responsible for them.

The guidance movement in Kenya is becoming increasingly important. This is because the country is faced with many new problems, requiring special psychological or social services which are peripheral to education, (MOE,2009) These services are meant for all students not just those who deviate from the norms in direction or the other. The Kenya government is strengthening the guidance and counseling services through the Ministry of Education. Private agencies are also promoting guidance in schools, they are also promoting guidance outside the school set up by providing out of school programmes.

Universities through the department of psychology are offering guidance and counseling courses up to the degree level. In secondary schools, about 1000 of them have guidance and counseling heads of department posted to these schools by the TSC. Most private schools hire private counselors on a full or part-time basis, they have career masters or mistresses who are expected to carry out guidance and counseling (KIE; 2004). Guidance in schools is confined to the vocational field and Kenyan schools have very few reference books on guidance and counseling, trained personnel in this area are few or not available at all in schools.

There is need for guidance services in schools and colleges so as to meet the varied needs of students. There are a number of reasons for guidance in schools, and the most crucial of it is to minimize the incidence of indiscipline. Indiscipline is a canker in many schools and can be attributed to students lacking a sense of direction, a sense of purpose and a sense of fulfillment (KIE ;2004). The introduction of guidance programmes on a universal scale in educational institutions may be a Panacea for the ills of indiscipline and an antidote to the emergence of angry young men and women.

According to Ndambuki and Mutie (1999), vocational guidance is a life long process, needed by many individuals at various stages in life. In addition Ivancevich ( 2004), looks at it as the sequences of a persons work related activities and behaviour, associated attitudes, values and aspiration over the span of ones life. During these stages individuals reconsider and re-diagnose their capabilities and match them against the opportunities available. Career choice is an important aspect in a persons life, one will ask himself or herself what he or she will like to be. Determining what skills one has is extremely important in making career choices, people begin to form their careers during their elementary and secondary years. Decenzo and Robins (2003), notes that the exploration stage is important in determining a persons life career. A number of expectations about ones career are developed many of which are unrealistic.

The provision of vocational guidance in educational institutions has been necessitated by the complex changes that are taking place in the society and the world. Automation and recession for example, have forced many people to early retirement and retrenchment resulting in unemployment, the high rate of technological change has also created problems in occupational choices. Most students are not able to obtain informal exposure to a variety of occupations nor can they easily obtain relevant data about them( Werner and Desimore, 2006).

In schools, career counseling is very important, it helps learners to avoid causes of early career difficulties for students have a limited range of alternatives available to them. This ignorance leads them to have unrealistic career aspirations or choose a given career because they do not know any better (Kenya careers information guide, 2005 / 06) .Advice and example of relatives, teachers and friends are crucial in development of self image of what one might be, or what sort of work would be fun Floren and Sun (2008) ,believes that pupils should match their aspiration with their performance in school. Ndambuki and mutie (1999), argues that society places value on some job, certain jobs are believed to be exclusively for males while others are regarded as feminine.

There is need therefore to address the gender issue in order to stamp out stereotyping, the students should also be aware of the available employment options and make efforts to enter into self employment. Moreover, there is a craving to the society for knowledge accumulation, and the society may feel the individuals are over qualified, such may be under used, therefore students need to be aware of such problems in their vocational development. These include lack of knowledge of their own aptitudes and interests, lack of realism, indecision and inflexibility (Mutie & Ndambuki ;1999). Also lack occupational information and problem solving skills, thus vocational guidance becomes vital as it assists the young people with the normal problems expected and experienced in their vocational development.

Since independence education in Kenya has been highly valued and supported, one of the aims of the government from the onset was to eradicate ignorance ( Kenya careers information guide, 2005/06 ). According to the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MOEST, 2004), Educational guidance is a programme to develop the potential of learners, through the educational process and also to support learners to value the schooling process in order to realize self fulfillment. In addition, Kenya Institute of Education (2003), argues that achievements of success in education is potentially challenging, thus educational guidance is needed because of the chief defects of the present system of education. The talents of individuals are not being properly harnessed, and as such education is not up to the aptitude, ability and interests of an individual, in addition the ministry of education (2004), acknowledges that the students are made to read subjects without references to any goal.

Narayana (1991), noted that the crucial role of emotions in an individuals development and struggle for fulfillment, has not received adequate attention in education. Pupil’s attitudes towards society, and its problems, religion and morals, duties and responsibility are vastly more important than the few items of interaction. The pupil as he grow becomes interested in a variety of things around him and comes to devote undue attention to distractions, to the detriment of his studies, consequently he/she perform poorly at school (Ministry of Education, 2009). A number of other factors may lead to several academic Problems; some pupils may have reading difficulties, their rate of reading may be slow and comprehension poor. Some may develop likes and dislike with regard to subjects which may adversely affect performance (Mutie and Ndambuki, 1999). Poor performance may lead to other problems like loss of interest in studies, irregularity of attendance, truancy and other minor delinquencies. A good programme of guidance could initiate steps to overcome this and prevent deterioration, counseling could help the pupil gain insight to himself, understand his own problem in their proper perspective and cooperate with the school authorities to overcome the problems and promote academic excellence.

Further learners are helped to cope with examination related anxiety, Ministry of Education (2004). Fear of failure and craving for the highest grade are major sources of pressure among students, many students are at a loss to understand what subjects to take when they come to higher secondary school with little knowledge of the subject offered. According to ministry of education report (2004) , parents due to their set notions insists upon their children to take certain subjects, which they think to be very useful without caring whether their children possess the required abilities or not. Through guidance, the individual may be assisted on matters regarding choices of subject from the wider curriculum courses and colleges (Aggarwal, 2007). Through this the individual will be helped to know his / her pleasant position in the educational path and see what lies ahead.

Ndambuki and Mutie (1999), further argues that educational guidance facilitates the smooth transition for children from home to school, from primary to secondary to post secondary educational institutions or to the world of work. The final transition from the education system to the world of work appears to be the most important and the most difficult one for the students Narayana (1991), argues that educational guidance has emerged as a discipline to provide help to students on composes of schools, colleges and universities such that they are not tormented by their internal conflicts, do not become cynical and do not resort to self destructive strategies. In school the youth is encouraged to become a free and autonomous individual, each pupil is helped to adjust to the world of his academic work and its demands by developing desirable curriculum interests and life goals, cultivating efficient work habits and sound study skills.

A child is an integral part of a society (Kenya Institute of Education, 2003). It is very important that the child understands the dynamics of the civic society; civic guidance in a school set up can be described as the process of facilitating the awareness of the government and governance. Many of the positive or negative things that happen in the country affect the young people either directly or indirectly. It is important that the learner is helped to appreciate the factors that determine the state of the country. According to Ministry of Education (2004), the teacher counselor ought to help the learner to understand the necessity of nationhood and nation building, know his or her rights, responsibilities and freedom.

Civic guidance should help the learner to grow into a responsible member of the country, have a sense of unity, tolerance, peace and love, youth learn a lot from what society does (KIE ;2003) .The learner ought to be sensitized to avoid social vices such as, corruption and bribery and instead nurture and demonstrate socially acceptable values such as integrity, responsibility, honesty, selflessness, self respect and respect for other persons and property.

According to Kenya Career Information Guidebook (2005 /06), every one at one time in life, encounters an exceptional difficult situations as he or she seeks to address certain challenges in life. Ndambuki and Mutie (1999), holds the view that, young people are growing up in a complex, fast paced and fast changing society, where they often don’t understand what is happening or what to do about it. The youth are not excepted from life challenges, this results from the experiences owing to the natural growth processes which make pupils become more sensitive and self conscious about their physical changes and experiences emotional disturbances. Physical growth opens up a new world, the imbalance between physiological and psychological development leads to emotional difficulties and maladjustment.

Adolescence brings in, its wake ghost of problems that need to be met and resolved ,they and their peer face the Aids epidemic, alcohol, drug abuse, peer pressure, relationship personality differences; anxiety, frustration and a myriad of other problems in the home, school and society at large (KIE ;2004). Also most pupils do not know how to behave in a group, they tend to be shy, timid , self – conscious and generally avoid meeting people. The counselor understanding these problems can give them the required information for self understanding and guidance.

Achieng (2007), defines counseling as a consolation, discussion, deliberation, exchange of ideas, advice or process of decisions making. According to Cooper (2005), counseling is a positive human introduction, helpful process, acts, a deliberate effort and a plan. Counseling usually involves helping people to address specific problems that are troubling them, it involves helping people to develop different and more positive ways of coping with life.

The history of counseling can be best described as pathetic or even dismal to naive. In medieval ages, the evil spirits were thought to be the most probable course, behind any major personal or emotional problems concerning the human beings. Exorcisms were sought after methods of curing, this was followed by some more difficult time, where house morals were considered to be the reason behind all the problems concerning human beings (MOE; 2007). Counseling theories during the historic times were highly superstitious, religious and non-realistic. In 1936 earlier studies were examined and points of learning were developed to understand what could be done to improve industrial relations, major task in this respect was supposed to be done through personal counseling.

The dismal performance and the shortcomings of the historical theories, eventually led to the development of modern counseling skills and theories. The modern counseling theories propagate the “environmental factors” as the reason for all the personal or emotional problems concerning the human beings. The modern counseling theories rests upon skill based models (Achieng; 2007) .Counseling provides the warm and permissive climate with which an individual or members of a group can solve problems with the assistance of a trained and experienced person. Types of counseling include directive, non-directive and co-operative counseling, directive counseling is the process of hearing person’s emotional problems, deciding with him what he should do and then telling and motivating him to do it.

Directive counseling mostly accomplishes the counseling function of advice, but it may also reassure, communicate and give emotional release. Non- directive counseling or client centered counseling is the process of skillful listening to a person and encouraging him to explain his emotional problems, understand them and determines courses of action. It focuses on the counselee rather than on the counselor as judge and adviser hence it is client centered (Achieng, 2007) .Cooperative counseling is a mutual discussion of an employee’s emotional problem and a cooperative effort to set up conditions that will remedy it.

Cooperative counseling starts by using the listening techniques of non-directive counseling but as the interview progresses, the manager may play a more positive role than the non-directive counselor plays. The need for counseling has also become important in promoting the status of the child, effective counseling should assist in improving the self-image of the youth which consequently will facilitate better achievement on life tasks (Wango ;2006) .Of late counseling has been institutionalized, schools for example have to a large extent taken over the function of providing psychological support for their students.

Culture is the general pattern of behaviors, shared beliefs and values that members have in common. Culture can be inferred from what people say, do and think with organizational settings. According to Saffold (2005), culture refers to school experiences, outlooks and materials in an organization, community or society as a whole, schools in Eldoret East should develop a culture of their own. Koontz and Weirich (1990), noted that culture involves the learning and transmitting of knowledge, beliefs and patterns of behavior over a period of time. According to Scotts (2002), culture establishes implied rules for the way people should behave, Vikings (1981), further argues that, as individuals come into contact with organizations, they come into contact with dress norms, organizational formal rules and procedures and its formal codes of behavior; which are considered part of the organizations cultures ,the same sentiments are held by Hoy and Miskel ( 2008) .

An organizations culture should develop and evolve from its statement of philosophy and mission (Saffold, 2006). This does not however often happen, instead it often evolves from the behaviour of the management team, as a result many organizations trace their culture to an individual top manager, who personifies the major values of the organization at one time (Khanka, 2002). The determinants of organizational culture include history, environment, staffing process, socialization among employees and the day to day practice of the management (Mcshane, et al, 2005).Culture in organization is reflected in the way people unconsciously perform tasks, set objectives and administer resource to achieve them. Culture is a very important ingredient of a community, irrespective of its size or nature (Ivanceviece, Konapaske and Matterson, 2008).

Different societies have different ways of life, once particular ways of life and activities have been adopted by a community, they tend to become binding to the members of that group. Schools are organizations, therefore the culture of a school refers to the ethos of a school, the culture of a school is developed from the statement of its philosophy and mission, it also evolves from the behaviour of the management team. According to Decenzo and Robbins,(2003), values are a societies ideas about what is right or wrong, Bagada (2002), states that values are passed from one generation to another and are communicated through education systems, religion, family, communities and organizations.

Values are important, they influence our perception, values, influence, attitudes and behaviour. Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence, is personally preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence (Nzuve, 1999). Values contain a judgmental element in that they carry an individuals ideas as to what is right, good or desirable. In different cultures, certain values have developed overtime and are continually reinforced; the values people hold are essentially established in their early years from parents, teachers, friends and relatives. One’s early ideas of what is right and what is wrong are probably formulated from the views expressed by ones parents and immediate family members. As one grows up he or she is exposed to other value systems and this alters some of his or her values.

Chokwu (2002), argues that every school is expected to develop its core values and state them clearly in its development plan, core values for a school may include academic excellence, good character among pupils, high retention rate, good health and strong community ties. Most of what we are preserving and perpetuating as culture is due to values associated with it by a people or a group, values are vital components of culture (Mbithi, 2007).

Arcado (1995), asserts that planning begins with knowing where you are and where you want to go, organizations are founded on a particular purpose, although this purpose may change overtime. The government Kenya has encouraged various to develop the mission vision statement to guide the development of Iten service. An organizations mission sets a business apart from other firms of its type (Robinson and pearcel, 2001), it describes the broad fundamental purpose for the organizations existence, the ultimate result it hopes to produce. According to Saffold (2003), the mission should link together all subordinate goals, plans and policies, thus an organization becomes truly purpose driven by capturing the sense of purpose that a leader provides and makes the driving force for all the organizations activities, policies and practices. A mission statement is derived from the organizations mission (David, 2006), it specifies what activities organization intends to pursue and what course management has chattered for the future.

To properly construct a mission statement, leaders, must take into account mandates, stakeholders and values, each represents an important set of considerations for defining the mission. Mandates may be stated in laws, regulations, chatters or contractual agreements, Stakeholders are those people or group who have an interests in or are interested or affected by the organizations activities, values, condition and direct activities of every institution (Torrington and Taylor, 2005). A vision is long term frame of horizon, developed to set for the organizations mission and objectives, this is concerned with the future point of time and its purpose is to stimulate action towards the mission. It is the privilege and responsibility of leaders to move people and organizations from where they are today to where they need to be tomorrow. As a way of instilling discipline in Kenyan schools Mission and Vision statements are crucial.

A school is an organization with a mission and vision statement, whose aim is to describe the purpose by which the institution exists, and gives an image of a possible and desirable future. Godia (2003), states that a mission statement is general statement of the school, its aims, purpose and values and it clearly stipulates why the school exists, it is largely to do with behaviour standards and values of the school. All students can and should participate to determine the vision and mission and the setting of goals for the classroom. Mission statement can help individuals who get led astray by events to pull themselves back to their original mission. A sense of mission occurs when there is a match between the values of the schools and those of pupils that is values must be compatible with those of the school.

Just like companies, schools have their own norms and rules which must be objective (Gutken and Reynolds, 1990). Rules guide the conduct of the pupils and the rule system has to be clear as to the consequences of bad behaviour. The aims of rules in schools is to show the influence or rules of expectations about pupils. Hackett (1979), noted that by laying down formal rules the organization can attempt to govern the behaviour of all employees. The starting point in devising your rules must be the objectives and climate of the organization, the establishment of an education system requires the formation of rules and regulations to ensure an orderly learning process (Human Right Watch, 2007). In addition MOEST (2007), argues that every institution should formulate its own rules and regulations for the smooth running of the affairs of the institution, and position aspects and accruing advantages highlighted.

Schools have the power to make reasonable regulations for the good order of pupils inside and outside schools. As one of the alternative methods of handling discipline Setting rules and expectations will make disciplinary measures more effective if the teacher make his or her expectations at the beginning of the term. Mbithi (2007), noted that almost all schools have written rules which are intended to serve as guidelines to pupils on what is required of them, in terms of personal conduct, once they are registered in the school. The life of the pupils must be structured with a set of clearly defined rules and regulations that govern conduct (Were, 2006), they should clearly spell out the school policies and cover such areas as punctuality, cleanliness, uniform, obedience and respect.

It should be noted that school rules are important in instilling discipline among pupils, rules also help to set academic excellence, and they contribute to all round development of students. Were (2006), advocates that pupils / students can be encouraged to come up with rules that could be incorporated with old school laws. This would give them a feeling of ownership since they would view them as their own creation and thus strive to obey them. If there is lack of commitment and ownership, this will result to resentment and untimely open defiance (MOEST, 2007), learners should be left free to discuss the rules focusing on advantages and disadvantages to individuals, groups and the whole school community. Rules should be stated precisely, be realistic, short and simple, consistent, possible to enforce and as few as possible (MOEST, 2007).

Were (2006), support the fact that the rules should not be very restrictive because students like adults, resent unrealistic restrictions and struggle against them. Developing respect for authority, other peoples rights and abiding by laws marks a good chance of staying out of trouble (Kertiony, 2006). In using rules to foster discipline, the head teacher has to work with the parents, the parents have to be aware of the schools code of conduct and ensure there is no contradiction between what is emphasized at school and home for instance instructions governing cleanliness, tidiness, respect and honest. This consistency is important for character formation as reported by the City Education Department (1979). The head teacher should also ensure that there is fairness in adults dealing with children in school, or at home, the rules should emphasize the need for cooperation and being considerate to others because this will be to every ones benefits.

According to Were (2006), discipline works with the law of reinforcement. Reinforcement is based on skinners behaviorist learning theory, which suggests that behaviuor that is reinforced by immediate reward or recognition is more likely to occur again, and that behaviour which is ignored gradually becomes extinguished. Since behaviour is learnt, responsible behaviour to the young can be taught through reinforcement, human beings are motivated by what pleases them. Anything that is considered desirable to an individual can serve as reinforcement to his or her behavoiur, Mbithi (2007), noted that given the numerous external influences which surround the modern child, the school and family must play their positive role, in guiding and equipping every school child with an informed conscience to make reasonable decisions regarding situational behaviour.

In addition to equipping children with mental capacities that lean toward good behaviour habit, it is also important for the school and family to establish sound methods of reinforcing them. Activities are some of the most common reinforces used by teachers, the teacher should be familiar with the common classroom stimuli or events that are often used as reinforces (Were, 2006). When increasing desirable behaviour one ought to choose effective reinforces (Santrock, 2004), it should be realized that not all reinforces are the same for every child. To find out the most effective reinforces for a child, one can examine what has motivated the child in the past, what the student want but can not easily get and the Childs perception of the reinforces value. For a reinforce to be effective, the teacher must give it only after the child performs the particular behavior.

In reinforcement, there is positive and negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement occurs when the event that follows that behaviour strengthens its frequency, duration or intensity (Were, 2006). In positive reinforcement, the aim is to encourage the internalization of character habits that exhibit good behaviour both at school and home. Among the positive stimuli are food, money, grades, talking to pupils, smiling at them and saying good, giving special privileges and written citations, schools should accuracy According to Branch (2000), in negative reinforcement the disapproval of some actions is met with some discouraging methods so as to stop their recurrence. Friedman (2000), adds that in a school or a family setting, such methods may include detention, isolation from the group and withdrawal of privileges. In addition to the above, Evertson, Emma and Wosherm, (2003), includes the following, repeating an assignment, paying a fine, being referred to higher authority for reprimand, suspension or expulsion where no alternative is available ,the same sentiments are egoed by Stort and Stewin M’cann (1991).

Teachers may also use prompts and shaping (Hackenberg, 2000), prompts are given just before a response, and increases the likelihood that the response will occur. Prompts help get behaviour going, when the students consistently shows the correct responses, the prompts are no longer needed. Instructions can also be used as prompts (Santruck, 2004), when prompts fail, teachers resort to shaping shaping involves new behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations to specified target behaviour. Initially one reinforces any response that in some way resemble the target behavior, subsequently you reinforce that which closely resembles the target and so on, until the student performs the target behaviour and then you reinforce it (Chance, 2003). In continuous reinforcement children learn very rapidly but when the reinforcement stops extinction also occurs rapidly. For reinforcement to be a good reinforce teacher should always reinforce those good habits in the learners.

There is massive evidence that reward and recognition systems result in better outcomes than punishment .According to Amstrong (1999), an employee reward system consists of an organizations integrated policies, processes and practices for rewarding its employees in accordance with their contribution and competence, and their market worth . MooreHead and Griffin (2000), argues that reward system is developed with the organization reward philosophy, strategies and policies. A reward system expresses what the organization values and is prepared to pay for, the purpose of the reward system in most organizations is to attract, retain and motivate qualified employees. Schools are organizations, and the purpose of rewards in schools in Eldoret East was to change student behaviour, improve performance and to motivate learners. Memorial and Gankar (2001), noted that rewards are used to modify behaviour implicitly or explicitly.

Schools need to decide what type of behaviours or performances it wants to encourage with a reward system because what is rewarded tends to recur, teachers should encourage this schools in Eldoret East District. Extrinsic rewards are tangible and visible, they include the use of points for work done, use of honour to show recognition of good performance and prize giving, Okumbe (1999). It also includes public acclaim for success in sports or academic achievement, use of badges, promotion from one group or stream to another, and participation in an enjoyable activity like swimming and playing among others .Intrinsic rewards on the other hand include praise for effort made, show of affection, attention, a glow of pride, smiles, nods and using a learners ideas as basis of a lesson or an activity.

Choosing appropriate rewards and suitable systems for their delivery are the most difficult aspects of behaviour modification in the classroom. The teacher has to define what she / he wants the children to do, then to organize classroom events so that pleasant consequences follows when they do it. Armstrong (2007), believes that individuals will be valued in accordance with the extent to which they achieve objectives and uphold organizational values. Incentives motivate children to learn and behave properly (Wilkins, 1976), praises is one of the incentives used and, should be given for good behaviour and efforts of children so that they will continue to behave in the appropriate manner to gain adults praise.

Macharia and Wano (1989), noted that praising the performance of a person is often gratifying, praises should come immediately. When offering praise use pupils name, people like to hear their name and if possible say thank you in the praise message (Ivancevich, 2006). Qualities of an effective reward system should include importance that is to the person receiving it, when giving it should be equitably distributed.

2.13 Programmes of pastoral instructions

Programmes of pastoral instructions( ppI) is the curriculum designed by different churches that is, the Roman Catholic church , protestant churches and seventh day Adventist in collaboration with the Ministry of Education to teach learners knowledge and practices of the specific faith traditions. According to the Kenyan Episcopal Conference Catholic Secretariat Organization (2007), PPI is usually taught professionally by a member of the school staff who belongs to a particular denomination. The history of PPI can be traced back to the 1964 Ominde report, which recommended that CRE must have an approved common syllabus and text books to be used in all Kenyan schools, include schools in Eldoret East District.

This was enacted in 1968 through the Education Act in relation to those recommendations, the churches through their secretariat at first produced two syllabi these were syllabi A and B. A was to be used by protestants –sponsored schools where as syllabus B was for catholic sponsored schools, both syllabus contain teaching of the common Christian heritage and specific church doctrines and traditions, Kenya Episcopa conference Catholic Secretariat (2007)

The churches decided to produce an interim joint syllabus in1972, which combined the common Christian heritage in syllabi A and B. The interim joint syllabus could only be implemented with accompanying programmes of pastoral instruction that catered for the specific teachings of Protestants and Catholics. In 1972 the protestants PPI was implemented a long the interim joint syllabus, the SDA PPI was implemented in1978.When the primary CRE syllabus was implemented in 1985 following the changes to 8.4.4 system of education the three PPI were implemented a alongside the new syllabus.

The objective and content of PPI is as reflected in each of the three types of PPI, the catholic PPI is aimed at, helping the learner discover their identify as catholic Christians and apply all that they learn to their daily lives. The Protestants PPI was introduced with purpose of helping protestant pupils to learn about the lord Jesus Christ as the one who loved and bless little children, the topics have been selected from the OT to illustrate to the pupils stories that Jesus learned during his child hood. The pupils are also exposed to NT topics which help them understand the birth, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ Kenya Episcopal Conference (2007). The SDA PPI was introduce with the intension of stressing the Christians faith tenets, that are held and taught by the seventh day Adventist church and are not covered on the joint Christian religious education syllabus.

Faith implies an attitude towards the God of love, trust and deep admiration, it means having enough confidence in God, based upon the more than adequate confidence, revealed to be willing to believe and whatever he wishes without reservation on the rest of eternity. Pastoral instruction is taught professionally, using the life approach method of CRE teaching and it also considers the age level of the learner. It is taught by the member of school staff and only by way of exception, by some one from outside the school, Kenya Episcopal Conference (2007) .Pastoral care is taught a long side PPI, it is the application of pastoral instruction, which cares for the spiritual needs which are performed by the church ministers. In a school environment, a teacher of PPI may provide pastoral care by giving a healing message to a learner who is struggling with alienation and despair due to problems of his or her family, poor performance or bulling by peers.

2.14 Use of the Prefects as an effective tool of discipline

Prefects carry out some supervisory duties, organize charity work and act as a filter of views between pupils and senior management staff in primary school in Eldoret East district . Prefects are selected by the teaching staff with the head teacher carrying a final power over the selection. In some schools prefects are chosen by the students and this suggest endorsing of the community ethos, which the school sought to convince, Munn and Johnstone (1992) The prefect system gives the prefects a sense of belonging, a say in the affairs of the school and it makes it easier for the schools to get them to do what the school want them to do

Effective discipline requires the headteacher to redefine the role of prefects in schools Were (2007), noted that there are many problems in schools because of poorly perceived role of prefects among the students body and thus has led to open hostility, violence and even murder. Student’s view prefect as puppets of the administration, traits and sell outs, this attitude has prevailed because of the way the prefect are chosen, as well as the special privileges given to them but denied other students, Were (2007) This negative attitude can be changed if students can be allowed to form student counsels with representatives elected directly by the students and giving students the same treatment. Finally encouraging prefects to give peer guidance and counseling their fellow students instead of policing over them.

According to Mamoria & Ganker (2001) among the people who can help you get students to engage in more appropriate behaviour are peers, parents; principals or a mentor .Peers sometimes can be effective at getting students to behave more appropriate, peer mediators can be trained to help students resolve quarrels between students and change undesirable behaviours; for example if two students have started to argue with each other, an assigned peer mediator can help to mediate the dispute. Parent –Teachers conferences can also be used, you can telephone the students parents or confer with them and by informing them you can help get the student to improve behaviour .

One can also enlist the help of the principals or counselor, many schools have prescribed consequences for particular problem behaviors for instance if you have tried unsuccessfully to deal with the behavior consider asking the schools counselor, which might result in detention or warning to the student as well as parent conferences with the principals. Mentor can also be used to influence behavior of an individual, in work organizations a mentor can provide a coaching friendship, sponsorship and role experienced protégé, likewise to schools, the same applies (Ivancevich,et al ,2006).

Students should have at least one person in their life who cares about them and support their development. A mentor can provide students with guidance they need to reduce problem behaviour (Santruck, 2001). The main roles of a mentor to an individual are to give moral support to a colleague, be there to listen, provide an unthreatening presence and give sensible advice. Mentoring is an important role and ideally, a mentor should be carefully selected and trained for that task; the role of the mentor in an organization is to help people within the organization to learn about themselves, their potential and capability. In addition a good mentor, who deals with the learner on a personal level, must have the credibility and knowledge in the first place. This should be the case in our primary schools in Eldoret East district.

This may mean that a mentor must review his or her own skills and knowledge and fill in any gaps. An effective mentor will also have thought over any potential problems or challenges before they happen and have begun to consider what they will need to do when these problems arise A mentor need to exhibit at least some of the following characteristics, being flexible, becoming actively involved in the mentoring role, and showing interest in the person being mentored. Looking at alternative ways of making progress in a reliable and quick manner, being willing and able to spend time with the learners, essentially as long as it takes (Mamoria and Gankar, 2001).

The literature reviewed school discipline in different countries, it is noted that corporal punishment has been used as a measure of maintaining discipline in different parts of the world over a long period, including Eldoret East District in Kenya. In Britain it was a fact of life for British school boys, Sparta in particular used it frequently as part of a disciplinary regime designed to build will power and physical strength. In the Roman Empire 39 lashes with a whip were applied to the back whereas in Japan the old –concept of Konjo was alive and well, in Kenya corporal punishment was introduced in 1972 under the Education Act (school discipline) . School discipline is a form of discipline appropriate to the regulation of children or student and maintenance of order in schools. There are two types of discipline, preventive and corrective disciplines, where as the approaches to discipline are traditional, free expression movement and modern use.

The guidance movement had its origins in Europe and the USA in the 19th Century but did not gather momentum until the beginning of the 20th.Century, (Mbithi; 2007) The pioneers, one of whom was Frank Parsons concentrated on the provision of occupational information, later there was a move towards the use of more objective methods and this was necessitated by the need to assess individuals for jobs using tests and interest inventories. Guidance in the educational systems in Africa is a relatively new concept, there is great awareness about the need for these services, and however there is need for proper implementation of these programmes.

The history of counseling can be described as dismal, theories during the historic times were highly superstitious, religious and non realistic in nature. The modern counseling theories propagate the environmental factors as a reason for all the personal or emotional problems concerning the human being. The types of counseling include, directive counseling, non- directive counseling and cooperative counseling. People have provided help to one another from time immemorial, (Mbithi; 2007) much of this help has been in the form of advice-giving or wisdom. In schools counseling helps boys and girls learn to cope with problems encountered in life and eventually learn to think in adulthood, School rules and regulations have the power to make reasonable regulations for good order of pupils inside and outside school and should be very few. Programme of pastoral instructions offered in primary schools helps pupils understand God, themselves and others and contributes to behavior modification.

The literature also reviewed the three view points of discipline, each of which gives its justified position on how discipline should be managed, (Mbithi; 2007) These schemes include the traditional scheme of discipline, the free expression scheme of discipline and modern scheme of discipline. Morals in traditional communities dealt with the question of what is right and good, what is wrong and evil in human conduct, it is believed this moral sense has produced customs, rules, laws, traditions and taboos which can be observed in every society. Schools use school values and culture to enforce discipline, culture is the general pattern of behavior, shared beliefs and values that members have in common. Values are society’s ideas about what is right or wrong.

The culture of a school refers to the ethics of the school, every school is expected to develop its core values and state those clearly on its development plan. Core values for a school may include academic excellence, good character among pupils, high retention rates, good health and strong community ties, (Safford,2005) A school is an organization with a mission and vision statement, these are important in that they describe the purpose of which the institution exists and gives an image of a possible and desirable future. Most schools use this to gauge the discipline of their pupils.

Discipline in schools also work with the law of reinforcement, behavior that is reinforced by immediate reward or recognition is more likely to occur again, and that behavior which is ignored gradually becomes extinguished, since behavior is learnt responsible behavior to the young can be taught through reinforcement. Use of incentives and rewards is another way of modifying behavior implicitly or explicitly, it is important for schools to decide what type of behaviors or performances it wants to encourage, with a reward system because what is rewarded tends to recur. Role modeling is another method used to modify behavior among pupils and students in schools.

Various people in the lives of these students act as role models, they include teachers, parents and older students or pupils in the schools, and their mode of life has a great impact on the child’s life. In Britain since the Ban of Corporal punishment, teachers have been forced to look at alternative sanctions, often exploring pastoral care, models which require high levels of staffing, space and time, use of school rules, rewards and praise, child time outs and distractions, are some of the methods used in Britain. It was also noted that similarities exist in some of the alternative strategies used in Britain and Kenyan schools, for instance use of school rules, models, incentives and rewards.

Corporal punishment was banned in Kenya school in 2001 and no alternative were given. It was out of this concern that the researcher investigated alternatives being used in primary schools. Based on the objectives of the study, among the alternative being investigated include use of guidance and counseling, school rules and regulations, use of rewards, reinforcement and good role models.

This chapter describes the research design and methodology of the study, target population, sampling design and sample size, methods of data collection, research instruments, data collection procedures which include use of questionnaires , interview and document analysis. It also covered validity and reliability of the research instruments and data analysis techniques.

The study was carried out in Eldoret East District, Rift Valley Province of Kenya Eldoret East district borders Keiyo district to the East, Eldoret West to the west and Wareng to the North. It lies within latitude 0° and 0º 2” North and longitude 34°, 36º. The district is divided into seven administrative divisions- Karuna, Moiben, Meibeki, Sergoit, Kaptagat, Ainapkoi and Kipkabus. The researcher chose this district due to lack of apparent studies on alternative strategies of handling pupils discipline in primary schools, also various cases of indiscipline have been reported in primary schools.

Research design and methodology helps the researcher to lay strategies which enable him or her to carry out research,the study was conducted using descriptive survey research design. According to Cohen and Manion (1992), a survey study helps to gather data at a particular point in time, with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, identifies standards against which existing conditions can be compared and determines the relations that exist between specific events. Descriptive research design was appropriate to the study compared to the other methods because of the large sample taken, surveys according to Isaac and Michael (1990), are the most widely used technique in educational research for collection of data. Survey research was conducted by asking the same questions to a large number of individuals, with the aim of determining the characteristics, including attitudes and opinions of a defined population.

A survey was appropriate because it describes the existing phenomena in the schools, by assessing individuals about their attitudes; values and practice, hence enable the researcher to identify the alternative strategies being used in schools in the absence of corporal punishment. Surveys are also ideal in measuring characteristics of a large population as supported by Fraenken and Wallen (2002). According to Oso and Onen (2005), Surveys are justifiable by considering issues of economy of the design, rapid data collection, and ability to understand populations from part of it.

The target population for the study comprised of all head teachers, Class teachers and Class seven pupils in public schools in Eldoret East District. According to the data obtained from the District Education Officer and the AEO Moiben division as per June, 2008 there were a total of 113 public primary schools and 15 private schools. From the target population 33 public schools were selected for the study with a population of 500 respondents comprising of 33 Head teachers, 132 teachers and 335 pupils. In eldoret east district.

The study adopted stratified random sampling to get the zones i.e. Kanuna Moiben, Meibake, sergoit Keptaga, Ainabiko and Kipkabus. In Eldoret East there are seven zones, random sampling was used to select schools from each zone, as summarized in the table below. The head teachers and class teachers were purposively sampled, while random sampling was used to select class seven pupils who participated in the study. Total sample involved in the filling of Questionnaire was 500 this inclides 33 headteachers, 132 class teachers and 335 pupils, this is summarized in figure page 141 the return rate was 61%.

Authorization for the research was sought form the office of the president after the research problem had been defined and research tools identified, data collection commenced. The type of data used in this research is both primary and secondary, primary data are those facts which are collected through survey, and to collect such form of data, the researcher made use of questionnaires and interview. Secondary data consist of existing information collected by others and available from secondary sources, such as published books, articles or statistical series and unpublished reports and files. For this case the researcher analyzed class registers, log books and discipline books.

This method of data collection is quite popular particularly in case of big enquiries, the questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire was delivered by the researcher to respondents who were expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents had to answer the questions on their own, the questionnaire contained closed- ended and open ended questions.

The merit of using a questionnaire lies in the fact that it is an economical way of accumulating information in time, effort and cost. It was also felt they were time saving hence the respondents would have time to go through each item (Oso and Onen, 2005), the respondents were given two weeks to fill them. Secondly, it permits group administration and it covers a large group at the same time. The disadvantages of this system is that; it is difficult to probe problems like in the case of an interview and there is also a possibility of ambiguous replies or omissions of replies altogether to certain questions. This problem was overcome by verifying the questions to the respondents and what was not clear was confirmed to them before they filled.

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This was administered to the head teachers for the purpose of verifying information in the questionnaires. One advantage of using interview method is that more detailed information can be obtained. Another advantage is that the language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the person being interviewed and as such, misinterpretation concerning questions can be avoided. But there are also disadvantages about the interview method, one is that it is a very expensive method especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken. Also the presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extend that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.

The researcher carried out 19 series of interviews with the headteachers, the interview collected information on the status of discipline in schools after the ban of corporal punishment, use of guidance and counseling and methods adopted in guidance and counseling. Challenges faced by the teachers in guidance and counseling, methods used to overcome the barriers, other methods of instilling discipline, and suggestions concerning effective discipline in primary schools. The interviews were conducted during the administration of the questionnaire and were done in a manner that the respondents were free to speak and give their views. The respondent also had a chance to seek clarification of any of the questions that might have been ambiguous.

The researcher was to interpret it the way it was without changing the meaning of the document. The researcher was interested in the school’s log book, discipline book and class registers. The advantage of using this is that, it provided useful information to the study than other documents. This is because documents like log books, discipline book and registers are vital documents with information regarding the daily events or occurrences in those schools. The disadvantage is that, the data may be biased depending on whoever kept the records; the researcher was able to analyze class registers to confirm the information on pupil’s absenteeism. Discipline books were not kept in most schools, it was only available in two schools, this book records the nature of discipline administered to pupils in case of infractions. With the log books it had information on normal school routine and the researcher accessed it in four schools. Class registers were accessed in 19 schools.

Tuckman (1978), argues that it is highly desirable to run a plot test on a Questionnaire and revise it based on the results of the test. To test reliability the questionnaires were piloted in three schools in Eldoret West District after which the same was repeated after two weeks. The purpose of pilot testing was to establish whether they could be used to collect the relevant data and to identify items in the questionnaire that are unclear or ambiguous. To determine their reliability, the data collected was correlated using the spearman correlation coefficient (r)

R=1-6 Σ D²

N (n²-1)

The value of R= 0.584

Reliability refers to the consistency of the scores obtained, how consistent they are for each individual from one administration of an instrument to another and from one set of items to another (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2000).According to Christensen (1988), reliability refers to the consistency or stability in measurements. To test reliability the questionnaires were piloted in three schools in Eldoret west after which the same were repeated after two weeks, the results were correlated using the Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient (r).

The researcher established the validity of the instruments by consulting experts in the department, the experts assessed the relevance and the suitability of the content in the questionnaires independently and gave their opinions and suggestions and were adopted by the researcher to improve the validity and suitability of the questionnaire. The instruments were amended to incorporate their suggestions and recommendations before being administered. Validity was also established by giving the respondents the same questions, Communication was achieved by using simple language in constructing the questionnaire.

The data collected from the study were largely quantitative. Data from the demographic data sheet was treated as categorical data and was coded as such. Data from each of the scales comprising the research questioner was treated as interval data. On one category it was coded and scored as follows:

Strongly Agreed (SA) 5 points

Agree (A) 4 Points

Undecided (U) 3points

Disagree (D) 2points

Strongly Disagree (SD) 1point.

This chapter focuses on data presentation, analysis and interpretation. The data was presented in tabular form, basing on the views of the head teachers, class teachers and pupils. Their views reflected on frequency of indiscipline problems in primary schools, use of alternative methods of instilling discipline and the effectiveness of disciplinary methods on pupils. Data collected in this research was analyzed by use of descriptive statistics, that is, frequencies and percentages. The raw scores on frequencies were keyed into the SPSS computer programme, and the percentages were computed.

Gender was categorized into males and females which covered all categories of respondents that is the head teachers, class teachers and class seven pupils. As a result, it was established that majority (61%) of the headteachers who were participants to the study were male while 39% were female. Out of the 74 class teachers who formed part of the study sample, 35 (47%) were male and 39 (53%) were female. On the other hand, it was established that as it is with class teachers majority 114 (54%) of the pupils who participated in the study were female while 97 (46%) were male. This is as shown in figure 4.1.